Contraception
The risk of pregnancy without contraception is 2–4% for each unprotected act of intercourse. In 100 women using no contraception, 85 pregnancies occur per year. Approximately half of all pregnancies…
Microscopic anatomy of the female reproductive tract
Ovary The ovary has two distinct functions: germ cell production and steroid hormone biosynthesis. Germ cell support occurs in microscopic structures known as ovarian follicles. Resting follicles each contain a…
The breast and lactation
Development of the breast The human mammary gland is derived from ectoderm. It is first visible in the 4-week embryo as a bud or nodule of epithelial tissue appearing along…
Maternal adaptations to pregnancy: II
Thyroid gland Maternal thyroid hormone is critical for normal embryonic and fetal development. Among the hepatic proteins stimulated by the elevated circulating levels of estrogen in pregnancy is thyroid-binding globulin…
Reproductive genetics
Chromosomes Human chromosomes are complex structures consisting of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA) and protein. Each single helix of DNA is bound at each end with a telomere and…
Fertilization and the establishment of pregnancy
The egg At ovulation, the egg is arrested in metaphase of the second meiotic division (Chapter 4). It is surrounded by a proteinaceous sphere called the zona pellucida. Those granulosa…
Human sexual response
Successful reproduction is the ultimate definition of evolutionary fitness. Because fertilization occurs within the reproductive tract of humans, intimate contact between male and female is necessary for spontaneous conception to…
The menstrual cycle
Gametogenesis and steroidogenesis proceed in a continuous fashion in the postpubertal human male. In contrast, the postpubertal human female exhibits repetitive cyclic changes in the hypothalamic–pituitary–ovarian axis that allow: (i)…
Male reproductive physiology
Erection, emission and ejaculation An erection is a complex neuropsychologic event. It occurs when blood rapidly flows into the penis and becomes trapped in its spongy chambers. The three systems…
