Body Structure and Function



Body Structure and Function





Ideally, the human body is in a steady state called homeostasis. (Homeo means sameness. Stasis means standing still). Various body functions and processes work to promote health and survival. Homeostasis is affected by illness, disease, and injury.


You help residents meet their basic needs. Your care promotes comfort, healing, and recovery. Therefore you need to know the body’s normal structure (anatomy) and function (physiology). They will help you understand signs, symptoms, and the reasons for care and procedures. You will give safe and more effective care.


See Chapter 8 for the changes in body structure and function that occur with aging.



Cells, Tissues, and Organs


The basic unit of body structure is the cell. Cells have the same basic structure. Function, size, and shape may differ. Cells are very small. You need a microscope to see them. Cells need food, water, and oxygen to live and function.


Figure 7-1 shows the cell and its structures. The cell membrane is the outer covering. It encloses the cell and helps to hold its shape. The nucleus is the control center of the cell. It directs the cell’s activities. The nucleus is in the center of the cell. The cytoplasm surrounds the nucleus. Cytoplasm contains smaller structures that perform cell functions. Protoplasm means “living substance.” It refers to all structures, substances, and water within the cell. Protoplasm is a semi-liquid substance much like an egg white.



Chromosomes are thread-like structures in the nucleus. Each cell has 46 chromosomes. Chromosomes contain genes. Genes control the traits children inherit from their parents. Height, eye color, and skin color are examples.


The nucleus controls cell reproduction. Cells reproduce by dividing in half. The process of cell division is called mitosis. It is needed for tissue growth and repair. During mitosis, the 46 chromosomes arrange themselves in 23 pairs. As the cell divides, the 23 pairs are pulled in half. The 2 new cells are identical. Each has 46 chromosomes (Fig. 7-2).



Cells are the body’s building blocks. Groups of cells with similar functions combine to form tissues.



Groups of tissue with the same function form organs. An organ has 1 or more functions. Examples of organs are the heart, brain, liver, lungs, and kidneys. Systems are formed by organs that work together to perform special functions (Fig. 7-3).




The Integumentary System


The integumentary system, or skin, is the largest system. Integument means covering. The skin covers the body. It has epithelial, connective, and nerve tissue. It also has oil glands and sweat glands. There are 2 skin layers (Fig. 7-4).




The epidermis and dermis are supported by subcutaneous tissue. The subcutaneous tissue is a thick layer of fat and connective tissue.


Oil glands and sweat glands, hair, and nails are skin appendages.



The skin has many functions.




The Musculo-Skeletal System


The musculo-skeletal system provides the framework for the body. It lets the body move. This system also protects internal organs and gives the body shape.



Bones


The human body has 206 bones (Fig. 7-5). There are 4 types of bones.




Bones are hard, rigid structures. They are made up of living cells. Calcium and phosphorus are needed for bone formation and strength. Bones store these minerals for use by the body. Bones are covered by a membrane called periosteum. Periosteum contains blood vessels that supply bone cells with oxygen and food. Inside the hollow centers of the bones is a substance called bone marrow. Blood cells are formed in the bone marrow.



Joints


A joint is the point at which 2 or more bones meet. Joints allow movement (Chapter 23). Cartilage is connective tissue at the end of the long bones. It cushions the joint so that the bone ends do not rub together. The synovial membrane lines the joints. It secretes synovial fluid. Synovial fluid acts as a lubricant so the joint can move smoothly. Bones are held together at the joint by strong bands of connective tissue called ligaments.


There are 3 major types of joints (Fig. 7-6).




Some joints are immovable. They connect the bones of the skull.



Muscles


The human body has more than 500 muscles (Figs. 7-7 and 7-8). Some are voluntary. Others are involuntary.





Muscles have 3 functions:



Strong, tough connective tissues called tendons connect muscles to bones. When muscles contract (shorten), tendons at each end of the muscle cause the bone to move. The body has many tendons. See the Achilles tendon in Figure 7-8. Some muscles constantly contract to maintain the body’s posture. When muscles contract, they burn food for energy. Heat is produced. The more muscle activity, the greater the amount of heat produced. Shivering is how the body produces heat when exposed to cold. Shivering is from rapid, general muscle contractions.


Sphincters are circular bands of muscle fibers. They constrict (narrow) a passage. Or they close a natural body opening. For example:



• The pyloric sphincter (Fig. 7-9) is an opening from the stomach into the small intestine. Closed, it holds food in the stomach for partial digestion. It opens to allow partially digested food to enter the small intestine.



• The anal sphincter keeps the anus closed. It opens for a bowel movement.


• Urethral sphincters seal off the bladder. This allows urine to collect in the bladder. The sphincters open for urination.



The Nervous System


The nervous system controls, directs, and coordinates body functions. Its 2 main divisions are:



Nerves connect to the spinal cord. Nerves carry messages or impulses to and from the brain. A stimulus causes a nerve impulse. A stimulus is anything that excites or causes a body part to function, become active, or respond. A reflex is the body’s response (functioning or movement) to a stimulus. Reflexes are involuntary, unconscious, and immediate. The person cannot control reflexes.


Nerves are easily damaged and take a long time to heal. Some nerve fibers have a protective covering called a myelin sheath. The myelin sheath also insulates the nerve fiber. Nerve fibers covered with myelin conduct impulses faster than those fibers without it.



The Central Nervous System


The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system. The brain is covered by the skull. The 3 main parts of the brain are the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brainstem (Fig. 7-12).



The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It is the center of thought and intelligence. The cerebrum is divided into 2 halves called right and left hemispheres. The right hemisphere controls movement and activities on the body’s left side. The left hemisphere controls the right side.


The outside of the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex. It controls the highest functions of the brain. These include reasoning, memory, consciousness, speech, voluntary muscle movement, vision, hearing, sensation, and other activities.


The cerebellum regulates and coordinates body movements. It controls balance and the smooth movements of voluntary muscles. Injury to the cerebellum results in jerky movements, loss of coordination, and muscle weakness.


The brainstem connects the cerebrum to the spinal cord. The brainstem contains the midbrain, pons, and medulla. The midbrain and pons relay messages between the medulla and the cerebrum. The medulla is below the pons. The medulla controls heart rate, breathing, blood vessel size, swallowing, coughing, and vomiting. The brain connects to the spinal cord at the lower end of the medulla.


The spinal cord lies within the spinal column. The cord is 17 to 18 inches long. It contains pathways that conduct messages to and from the brain.


The brain and spinal cord are covered and protected by 3 layers of connective tissue called meninges.



The space between the middle layer (arachnoid) and inner layer (pia mater) is the arachnoid space. The space is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. It circulates around the brain and spinal cord. Cerebrospinal fluid protects the central nervous system. It cushions shocks that could easily injure brain and spinal cord structures.



The Peripheral Nervous System


The peripheral nervous system has 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves. Cranial nerves conduct impulses between the brain and the head, neck, chest, and abdomen. They conduct impulses for smell, vision, hearing, pain, touch, temperature, and pressure. They also conduct impulses for voluntary and involuntary muscles. Spinal nerves carry impulses from the skin, extremities, and internal structures not supplied by the cranial nerves.


Some peripheral nerves form the autonomic nervous system. This system controls involuntary muscles and certain body functions. The functions include the heartbeat, blood pressure, intestinal contractions, and glandular secretions. These functions occur automatically.


The autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. They balance each other. The sympathetic nervous system speeds up functions. The parasympathetic nervous system slows functions. When you are angry, scared, excited, or exercising, the sympathetic nervous system is stimulated. The parasympathetic system is activated when you relax or when the sympathetic system is stimulated for too long.



The Sense Organs


The 5 senses are sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. Receptors for taste are in the tongue. They are called taste buds. Receptors for smell are in the nose. Touch receptors are in the dermis, especially in the toes and fingertips.



The Eye.


Receptors for vision are in the eyes (Fig. 7-13). The eye is easily injured. Bones of the skull, eyelids and eyelashes, and tears protect the eyes from injury. The eye has 3 layers.




Light enters the eye through the cornea. It is the transparent part of the outer layer that lies over the eye. Light rays pass to the lens, which lies behind the pupil. The light is then reflected to the retina. Light is carried to the brain by the optic nerve.


The aqueous chamber separates the cornea from the lens. The chamber is filled with a fluid called aqueous humor. The fluid helps the cornea keep its shape and position. The vitreous humor is behind the lens. It is a gelatin-like substance that supports the retina and maintains the eye’s shape.

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Nov 5, 2016 | Posted by in MEDICAL ASSISSTANT | Comments Off on Body Structure and Function

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