Structure

Structure is the group’s underlying order. It describes the boundaries, communication and decision-making processes, and authority relationships within the group. The structure offers the group stability and helps regulate behavioral and interactional patterns. Examples of group structure include set meeting time and place, rules regarding attendance, and rules for behavior in the group, such as no smoking while interacting with the group.

Size

The preferred size of an interpersonally oriented group is 7 to 10 members. The group must have enough people to give members the opportunity to receive consensual validation and to hear different viewpoints. If the group has too many people, not all members will be given enough time to speak, and some will feel excluded. If the group has too few members, sharing and interaction can be diminished.

Length of Sessions

The ideal length of a session is 20 to 40 minutes for lower-functioning groups and 60 to 120 minutes for higher-functioning ones. For the latter groups, a few minutes are spent warming up to the task of working, most of the session is spent on group work, and the last few minutes are used to summarize and take care of any unfinished business that relates to that session. Some groups end by assigning homework, such as practicing saying no three times to various requests before the next group session.

Communication

A primary task of the group leader is to observe and analyze the communication patterns within the group. Using feedback, the leader helps members become aware of the group communication patterns so that they realize the significance of these patterns for the group and for themselves. The group or individual members may then experiment and change these patterns if they choose. Observable verbal and nonverbal elements of the group’s communication include the following:

These behaviors help the leader assess the following: resistance within the group, interpersonal conflict, the roles assumed by some members, the level of competition, and how well the members understand and are working on the task.

Roles

In studying groups it is important to observe the roles that members assume in the group. Each role has certain expected behaviors and responsibilities. The role a member takes can be determined by observing communication and behavioral patterns.

The following factors influence role selection: the member’s personality, the interaction in the group, and the member’s position in the group. People can play three types of roles in groups (Benne and Sheats, 1948):

These roles are summarized in Table 31-2. A person who acts as a harmonizer and peacemaker is taking a maintenance role. A person in the task role of questioner may clarify and seek new information.

Members may experience a conflict when there is a difference between the role they seek or assume and the role given to them by the group. For example, a member may be expected to be a peacemaker because of having performed that role previously. However, this member may be under additional stress or feel angry with someone in the group and may choose to start rather than resolve conflict. The group often is confused and upset by the person assuming this new role.

Power

Power is the member’s ability to influence the group as a whole and its other members individually. The power structure in the group is usually resolved in its initial stages. To determine the power of various members, it is helpful to assess which members receive the most attention, which are listened to most, and which make decisions for the group. Power may be granted or assumed based on any number of factors, including gender, age, previous experience, length of time in the group, or willingness to speak in the group.

Resolution of the power struggle does not necessarily mean that everyone will be satisfied with the arrangement. A continual struggle for power sometimes occurs. This may be functional if the members are trying to gain new leadership that can contribute to their therapeutic goals. The power struggle can be dysfunctional when it takes the group’s energy and attention away from other tasks.

Norms

Norms are standards of behavior. They are expectations of how the group will act in the future based on its past and present experiences. It is important to understand norms because they influence the quality of communication and interaction within the group.

The observance of norms results in conforming behavior by group members. The other group members may consider any member who does not follow the norms of the group rebellious or resistant.

Conforming to group norms is essential to being a fully accepted member. For example, if the group norm is to start meetings on time, a member who is always late to meetings is not conforming to group norms. The group decides to what extent it can tolerate nonconforming behavior.

Norms are created to do the following:

Norms may be communicated overtly or covertly. Overt expression of norms may be written or clearly stated. For example, members may tell a new member that smoking is not allowed in the group. Covert expression of norms may be implied through members’ behavior. For example, the other members may ignore a member who uses foul language.

A highly cohesive group may have appropriate or inappropriate norms. For example, a group of patients may unite to help a patient sneak a cigarette when such behavior is not allowed because of that patient’s health problems. The group also may unite to do what it can to prevent that patient from smoking.

One concern that is vitally important for a group to address is confidentiality. For a group to be most effective, members need to feel free to talk about issues that may be painful, embarrassing, or disturbing. The group members must agree that whatever is discussed in the group belongs to the group and that group content will not be discussed outside the group unless a different approach is specifically addressed beforehand and agreed to by all members. This norm of confidentiality should be communicated directly. Some groups may want members to sign an agreement of confidentiality.

Cohesion

Cohesion is the strength of the members’ desire to work together toward common goals. It influences members to remain in the group and is related to each member’s attraction to and satisfaction received from the group.

Cohesion is a basic aspect of any group because it affects its life span and success. Many factors contribute to the level of cohesion, including agreement of members on group goals, interpersonal attractiveness between the members, degree to which the group satisfies individual needs, similarities among members, and satisfaction of members with the leadership style.

Cohesion is such an important dimension that some group leader interventions are specifically aimed at promoting it. Activities may include encouraging members to talk directly with each other, discussing the group in “we” terms, and encouraging all members to sit within the space reserved for the group. A leader also can promote cohesion by pointing out similarities among group members, helping members listen to each other, and encouraging cooperation among the members.

The group leader continually monitors the level of cohesion in the group. Group leaders may observe how much members express interest in other members and recognize other members for their individuality. Another way to measure cohesion is to find out whether members identify with the group and whether they want to remain in the group.

Pregroup Phase

An important factor to consider when starting a group is what its goals will be. The group’s purpose greatly influences many of the leader’s behaviors. The group may have more than one goal; if so, the primary goal should be clearly stated. To guarantee success, the group’s goals must be understood by all people involved, including the members and sponsoring agencies. It is the leader’s role to clarify the task and help the group achieve it.

After the purpose is established, the leader must be sure that the group has administrative permission. A written group proposal is one effective way to request this permission. Box 31-1 provides information to include in a group proposal.

BOX 31-1   GROUP PROPOSAL GUIDELINES

List the primary and secondary group goals.

List group leaders and their related expertise.

List theoretical frameworks used by the leaders to meet the group goals.

List criteria for membership.

Describe the referral and screening process.

Describe the structure of the group, including the following:

• Meeting place

• Meeting time

• Length of each meeting

• Number of members

• Duration of the group

• Expected member behaviors

• Expected leader behaviors

Describe the evaluation process for members and the group.

Describe resources needed for the group, such as coffee, a movie projector, or audiovisual equipment.

If pertinent, describe the expected cost and financial benefits incurred by the group.

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