Ectopic pregnancy
Any pregnancy that implants outside of the uterine endometrial cavity is called an ectopic pregnancy. Despite improved diagnostic and therapeutic approaches to this disorder, ectopic pregnancy remains the most common cause of pregnancy-related maternal death in the first 12 weeks of pregnancy. A ruptured ectopic preganacy is a medical emergency. Overall, ectopic pregnancies cause 4–10% of pregnancy-related deaths with maternal hemorrhage the ultimate fatal pathway. The incidence of ectopic pregnancy rose in the USA from the 1950s through the 1990s when national recording was halted. At that time the best estimate for the incidence of ectopic pregnancy was 2 in 100 pregnancies.
The known risk factors for ectopic pregnancy focus on alterations in appropriate function of the fallopian tube. The fallopian tube is not simply a conduit for sperm and embryo passage but rather a delicate microenvironment in which cilia help to move the fluids within the fallopian tubes that transport gametes and blastocysts. Decreased ciliary movement due to exposure to elevated levels of progesterone or direct damage, ciliary and cellular destruction as the result of trauma or infectious disease, and tubal blockage from surgical interruption or scarring all promote abnormal embryo transport. Over 90% of ectopic pregnancies can be directly related to tubal pathologies. From highest to lowest risk, these include: (i) previous ectopic pregnancy; (ii) tubal sterilization or reconstructive surgery; (iii) in utero exposure to diethyl stilbesterol (DES); (iv) prior genital tract infection (often silent, particularly with chlamydia); (v) infertility; (vi) multiple sexual partners; (vii) cigarette smoking; (viii) young age at initiation of sexual activity; (ix) maternal age at conception of >35 years; and (x) the practice of vaginal douching. The remaining 10% of ectopic pregnancies are of unknown etiology. They may result from embryonic factors, although there is no increase in embryonic or fetal karyotypic abnormalities when ectopic gestations are compared with intrauterine gestations. Two commonly cited risk factors for ectopic pregnancy are frequently misinterpreted. The use of assisted reproductive techniques, including in vitro fertilization, has recently been shown to have little effect on the overall incidence of ectopic pregnancies, although the rate of the otherwise rare heterotopic pregnancy (an ectopic gestation coexisting with an intrauterine gestation) is increased. The use of an intrauterine contraceptice device (IUD) protects against all pregnancies and thereby decreases the overall ectopic pregnancy rate. However, when pregnancy does occur with an IUD in place, the gestation is more likely to be ectopic.
Almost all ectopic pregnancies (∼95%) occur in the fallopian tube (Fig. 36.1). The most common site of implantation of an ectopic gestation within the fallopian tube is in its ampullary portion. Ampullary and fimbrial ectopic gestations frequently dislodge and abort prior to rupture. As the interstitial portion of the fallopian tube has thick muscular support, interstitial ectopic gestations may develop to relatively late gestational ages prior to clinical presentation. Cervical, interstitial and heterotopic (intrauterine + ectopic) ectopic pregnancies are rare but appear to be more frequent after in vitro fertilization. Ovarian ectopic gestations are random events without documented risk factors. Abdominal ectopic pregnancies are exceedingly uncommon.
Miscarriage
A miscarriage is defined as a spontaneous pregnancy loss before 20 weeks’ gestation; the medical term is spontaneous abortion. Miscarriages occur in 15% of clinically recognized pregnancies. The total number of human conceptions far exceeds the number of births. It is estimated that at least 60% of all human conceptions do not result in a viable pregnancy, with the majority of these being spontaneously lost before or shortly after an expected menses. These pregnancies can be documented by the appearance and disappearance of a pregnancy-specific hormone (human chorionic gonadotropin, hCG; Chapter 18) from the maternal bloodstream. It is clear that there is a sensitive and effective mechanism in the maternal system that can detect abnormal pregnancies and prevent survival of the overwhelming majority.
It is impossible to know the causes of those pregnancy losses that occur around the time of the expected menses, the so-called biochemical pregnancies. They probably result from a myriad of abnormalities and pregnancy loss represents the final common clinical outcome. Abnormalities may occur in the conceptus or in the microenvironment of the maternal reproductive tract at the time of conception. The latter may result from congenital or acquired anatomic defects in the uterus. They may also be caused by endocrine abnormalities that alter the maturation of the ova prior to ovulation, the development of the embryo during transit to the intrauterine cavity or the growth and maturation of the endometrium as it prepares for implantation.
It is known that the most frequent cause of overt miscarriage is a chromosomal abnormality in the conceptus. At least 60% of miscarriages have a gross chromosomal abnormality that can be detected in the expelled fetal material. Table 36.1 lists the frequency of specific chromosomal abnormalities in miscarried material. It is usually not possible to identify a specific etiology for the remaining 40% of isolated spontaneous pregnancy losses, although some are the result of an underlying problem that can lead to recurrent pregnancy losses.
Table 36.1 Relative frequency of aberrations in chromosomally abnormal abortuses
| Type | Incidence (%) |
|---|---|
| Trisomies (in order of frequencey: 16, other, 22, 21, 14, 15, 18) | 52 |
| 45X | 18 |
| Triploid | 17 |
| Tetraploid | 6 |
| Unbalanced translocation | 3 |
| Other | 4 |
| Total | 100 |
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