When writing up introduction and methodology, it is better that researchers write in the first person to show that they are accountable for their actions. It sounds pompous and dull when they state ‘the researcher has found … the author does … the writer considers … ’ etc., and Webb (2002), in an editorial for the Journal of Advanced Nursing, claims that first person writing is more reader-friendly. Qualitative research – and increasingly quantitative research – does not proceed in an objectified and neutral way. Gilgun (2005) too, advocates the use of the first person because researcher roles become integrated into the study. Researchers can use the first person when they describe what they themselves chose to do. For instance, researchers would not say when speaking about their own actions ‘the author chose a sample, or the researcher used the methods …’ etc. They might write ‘I chose a purposive sample of … I collected the data through …’. It is important, however, that the first person is not overused, and the use of ‘I think, I feel, I believe’ throughout is not appropriate. Those who do not wish to use the first person might choose the passive form (although this is not considered good English); for instance ‘a purposive sample was chosen …’ etc. Wolcott (2001) confirms:

‘Recognising the critical nature of the observer’s role and the influence of his or her subjective assessments in qualitative research makes it all the more important to have readers remain aware of that role, that presence. Writing in the first person helps authors achieve those purposes. For reporting qualitative research, it should be the rule rather than the exception.’

(Wolcott, 2001: 21)

Geertz (1988) warned two decades ago against the ‘author evacuated text’; Charmaz and Mitchell (1996) speak of the ‘myth of silent authorship’ and encourage the inclusion and presence of the writer in the text. This means writing sometimes in the first person.

The structure of a qualitative report is often organised in the following sequence, though this may differ between studies:

• Title
  
• Abstract
  
• Table of contents (in some guidelines this appears after acknowledgements)
  
• Acknowledgement and dedication
  
• Introduction
  
  
  
  • Background and rationale (justification) for the study, including its aim
    
  • Initial literature review (or overview of the literature)
  
  
• Entry issues and ethical considerations
  
• Methodology and research design
  
  
  
  • Description and justification of methods (including type of theoretical framework such as symbolic interactionism or phenomenology)
    
  • The sample and the setting
    
  • Specific techniques and procedures (such as interviewing or observation)
    
  • Data analysis
    
  • Trustworthiness and authenticity (or validity and reliability, depending on the terms used)
  
  
• Findings/results and discussion
  
• Conclusion and implications
  
• Reflections on the research
  
• References
  
• Appendices

Qualitative writing may differ substantially from a quantitative report, although commonalities exist. The main distinction lies in the flexibility of the qualitative report. The findings and discussion are the most important elements of the final write-up (see Ponterotto and Grieger, 2007 for advice on communicating qualitative research).

A list of abbreviations, acronyms, and/or a glossary of terms employed and written in alphabetical order, is useful before the first chapter or at the end of the study. The first time the terms are mentioned in the writing, they have to be written in full, with the abbreviations in brackets. From then on, abbreviations can be used.

Title

The title of a study is important, especially if it is presented as a student project, dissertation or thesis because it is the first and most immediate contact the reader has with the research, and its impact on judging the work can be considerable. We would argue for a concise but informative title which sounds interesting but not facetious. It must be remembered that it is initially a working title and may change when some of the research has been done, so it can encompass emergent ideas.

Writers often use explanatory subtitles; Silverman (2005) for instance prefers two-part titles. The title gives a clear and succinct picture of the study’s content. Punch (2005) advises that the title should not be long but contain all essential information. Novice researchers sometimes include redundancies in the title such as ‘A Study of …’ ‘Aspects of …’ or ‘Inquiry’, ‘Analysis’, ‘Investigation’. These clutter up the title. Although the title should reflect the aim of the research it would be clumsy to give the whole aim in the title. Questions usually do not make good titles, although there may be some exceptions.

The title page in a dissertation or thesis contains the title, the name of the researcher, the year and the name of the educational institution at which the student was enrolled. There is generally a pro forma for the title page at most universities. They also specify other details for the finished dissertation such as word allowance or size of margins. Obviously this differs for other types of research.

Abstract

The abstract is a summary of the study and is written when the research is completed. In a dissertation or thesis it appears on the page behind the title but before the table of contents and the full report. The abstract provides the reader with a brief overview of the research question and aim, methods adopted, and the main findings of the study. It might include the implications of the study in one or two succinct sentences.

Depending on the size and type of study, the abstract should contain between 200 and 500 words, usually contained in one sheet of A4 paper in single spacing and often written in the past tense. Writers should keep to the word limit specified for them by the university or commissioning agency and be selective about the content. Journal editors too, specify the form othe abstract which may be structured.

The abstract for a thesis or dissertation is generally a little longer than that for an article. It does not need to include the rationale of the study or an introduction. All important information is included.

The abstract is the ‘public face’ of the research as it appears on databases, websites and in abstract books, so it is of major importance in the research. Alexandrov and Hennerici (2007) maintain that the abstract determines whether the work might be chosen for presentation and communicated in a readable and appropriate way.

Acknowledgement and dedication

Traditionally all researchers, especially PhD or MPhil candidates give credit to those who supported, advised or supervised the research, and they also acknowledge the input of the participants. Often the writing is dedicated to particular individuals such as parents or spouses. Sometimes writers overwork and exaggerate ‘thank you notes’ or dedications, but of course, acknowledgement of others’ help is important.

Contents

Academic research reports have a table of contents before its main chapters begin. It cannot be finished before the whole project is finalised and written. The content is sectioned into chapter headings and subheadings with page numbers. In an undergraduate student project, the table of contents should be concise and need not be too long and detailed.

Introduction

Background and rationale

In the introduction the writer informs the audience about the research question or topic. The introduction consists of the background and context of the research as well as the aim – the overall purpose of the project. Writers explain why they have become interested in the question, how their project relates to the general topic area, and what gap in health knowledge might be filled by the new research through linking the question to the potential implications for practice. In the introduction, the researcher explains the significance of the study for the clinical setting and how it could improve clinical practice or policy. Researchers need to justify the chosen topic, and why it is relevant for the profession and for themselves at this time. The background section sets the scene for the study. It is useful for the researcher to ask the ‘so what?’ question to keep the background section relevant.

Initial literature review (or overview of the literature)

This section can stand on its own, or it can become an integral part of the introduction. The literature in qualitative studies has a different place from that in quantitative research. Of course it must show some of the relevant research that has been done in the field. The researchers summarise the main ideas from these studies, their problems and contradictions, and they show how these papers relate to the project in hand. It is important in qualitative reports not to explore every piece of research in the field at the start of the study, nor to give a critical review of all the literature but the main foundational studies, those which are specifically relevant and up-to-date recent research. Gaps in knowledge become apparent at this point. At this stage, the research question is linked to the literature (see Chapter 3 for more detail on literature review). By the end of the introductory section, the reader should be in no doubt that qualitative research, in the form suggested by the researcher, was most appropriate to meet the research aim.

Entry issues and ethical considerations

Health researchers describe entry and ethical issues (see Chapters 3 and 4). It must be stated how the participants were approached, for instance whether researchers advertised on a notice board or approached the potential participants personally. How did researchers gain permission from gatekeepers, those in the position of power to grant access to the setting (managers at various levels and local research ethics committees)? If patients are involved, their consultants or GPs might have to be asked for their permission if they are still under treatment.

Last, but most importantly, health professionals should make explicit how the ethical principles were followed in the study, and how the participants’ rights were protected. It is important that individual participants cannot be recognised in the report. To have permission from ethics committees might be essential, but it does not necessarily ensure that the researcher behaves ethically!

Methodology and research design

The methodology chapter includes several subsections: the research design and methodology; the methods, including data collection, sampling, detailed interviewing or observation procedures and a description of the data analysis. In qualitative research, the methodology is of particular interest because the researcher is the main research tool and has to make explicit the path of the research, so that the reader knows about the details of design, biases, relationships and limitations and is able to follow the decision trail. Hence the methodology section is often longer than its equivalent in a quantitative study.

Description and justification

The research design usually includes the main methods and the theoretical framework. Researchers briefly describe the methodology they adopt and the reasons and justification for it. They also explain the fit between the research question and the methodology.

The sample and setting

The sample is described in detail. Not all purposive sampling is fixed from the beginning (for instance, not in grounded theory (GT)). The writer describes the informants, who they were, how many were chosen and the reasons for the choice. Researchers tell the reader how they obtained their sample and portray the setting in which the study took place. If there is theoretical sampling, this must also be explained (see Chapter 11).