we introduced the idea of reflective practice, using Donald Schön’s theories about reflection in and on action (Schön, 1991). Since this popularization of the concept, reflection has been absorbed into professional education and practice and a great deal has been written on the subject. There are now dozens of models and adaptations of models available for your use.
In this chapter we will explore in more detail the reasons why you might use reflective practice. We will do this by exploring various models and using stories. We offer some choices here and are sure that as a result of your reading and experience, you will be able to find those which suit you best.
Through studying this chapter and engaging in the exercises you will be able to:
• understand when and how to use reflection
• identify which model is of most use to you in a given situation
• develop the ability to create your own story for reflection
Why reflect?
• embed good practice
• record thinking processes
• develop skills
• improve practice
• move difficult situations forward
The reward for you as a professional is that this approach will make your practice more fulfilling and sustainable; it may also help you through a difficult or challenging time at work. Your reflective practice will improve the experience of people for whom you have responsibility and those you work with.
Embedding good practice
George tells you that he has slept better. And thanks you. Are you a miracle worker?
What happened? When you reflect on your previous visit to George, all you can see that you have done differently is to bring him his eye medication. Talking to George, he explains that, because he could see properly, he decided to do a bit of gardening. As the result of the gardening, he was properly hungry, he made himself a full supper, watched the late news and went to bed.
The small action of bringing the eye drops is good practice because of the impact it has had on George. Being able to see has led to him being able to exercise and eat properly, thus he was able to sleep. Having seen what has happened to George, you can understand that a small act can have disproportionately beneficial outcomes.
Recording thinking processes
How you think about your practice does not really matter; the key is to have a record of the process. This is common to almost all published models of reflection, some of which we outline later in this chapter, and use in the exercises we offer you. Your thinking may look messy and unfocused, it may not be in chronological order; but once you have captured it, you can begin to see a logical process.
Reflection does not have to be written, it could be an audio or pictorial record. Reflection other than written is discussed in detail in chapter 6. The important thing is that you can revisit it and reinterpret it when you need to, because it is through the process of this recording that you gain insight. It may help to apply a formal model to your reflections, but you may also choose to find your own route.
Developing skills
Knowledge is experiential; we learn through our successes and mistakes. Reflective practice helps us make the best of our experience and grow as a result. What you have learned from George is likely to have little to do with his ophthalmic condition, or the properties of the eye drops (this knowledge may or may not be part of your professional role). Likely to be more important are the listening and questioning skills you used when you were trying to understand why he was housebound, sad and listless. When you analyse the incident into its component parts, the skill of listening is highlighted. The next time that you are faced with a situation like this or a situation in your own professional role where you actively listen to what a person is saying about their life, the likelihood is that you will be able to make a positive intervention earlier.
Improve practice
Reflection has the potential to improve practice – for example, it may make you more open to learning and responsive to others; the evidence base for this is discussed in more detail The context of reflective practice in chapter 9. Critical Incident Technique, which is used extensively in reflective practice and is described in more detail later in this chapter, was specifically developed in the 1950s by Flanagan to help aeroplane pilots to reflect on successes and near-misses, explicitly to help them improve their performance, with life-saving consequences (Ghaye & Lillyman, 2006). A systematic search of the literature suggests there is some empirical evidence in medicine and health care to support the role of reflection in improving practice (Mann et al., 2009). In addition, earlier research by Martha MacLeod on the practice of busy, experienced surgical ward sisters identified their openness to learning and a reflective approach as key factors in their successful practice (MacLeod, 1996). For social work, Brookfield argues strongly for the centrality of ‘critical’ reflection to practice (Brookfield, 2009). Whatever your motivation, reflection gives you a framework on which you can build further learning. Often, during reflective practice, you will see where your best skills lie and recognize that you have capabilities you hadn’t expected.
Move difficult situations forward
When things go wrong, reflective practice can help you to identify where a change or intervention could have improved the outcome for all of those involved. When a tragedy happens, everyone wants somebody to blame and fingers are quickly pointed. Reflective practice takes the heat out of the situation and gives you a safe process in which to explore your role and involvement. It may help you isolate a moment that you had not remembered under pressure. Perhaps there are signs that you missed because you were stressed or something that you understood in one way was meant in another. By breaking things up into their component pieces, it becomes easier to identify gaps and omissions.
Reflection can also help you to accept when you have failed. There is no health or social care professional who has not made a mistake. But recognizing small mistakes for what they are can prevent us making bigger ones at a later stage. We learn not to take complicated decisions when we are tired, or to stand back from situations that we simply cannot handle at that moment. As we develop our professionalism, we understand that it is not a sign of weakness to say that there are times when we cannot cope; we have a responsibility to ourselves as well as the people with whom we work. Sometimes the most professional thing you can do is hand over to somebody else. The importance of reflection when things go wrong is explored in detail in chapter 7.
How to reflect?
We hope we have convinced you that reflection is a worthwhile activity. In your everyday practice and as part of a course, it is a useful way to expand your learning and make the links between theory and practice. There are many approaches in the literature, generally referred to as models of reflection, so a little explanation of ‘models’ may be helpful.
The word ‘model’ has many meanings. A person strutting down the catwalk ‘models’ clothes, showing the audience how the outfit looks; this illustrates that ‘model’ can mean an idealized or perfect version of something. A model may also be a replica – many toys are models: cars, dolls, aeroplanes and soft toys make no claim to be the ‘real thing’ but are very important in play, allowing children to explore and experiment with concepts within the real world. Replicas, however, are not always toys: an engineer may make a very precise or computer-generated model in order to investigate and predict likely outcomes in a safe and controlled way.
Models may also be conceptual. This is where we envision the way something should be, an idealized state. Such models are often so embedded into our cultural outlook and education that we struggle to ‘see’ them, but they are all around! To illustrate this point we will use a conceptual model is recognizable (but not necessarily the same) in all human societies.
 | TIME FOR REFLECTION |
‘Family’: stop for a moment and reflect about what your idea of a family is … got it? – right, read on –
Perhaps you have a more abstract view of family? It may be that it is a state of mind, or is manifested in the way a group of people interact and support each other. Thus a group of people sharing a house may support each other financially and emotionally, forming a ‘family group’ with very few of the biological relationships above in place. These may be what are called ‘families of affinity’ (Macionis, 2010, p. 463). Would you say this is also a ‘model’ family, or is it something else? Whatever your view, the concept ‘family’ is well recognized and allows for comparisons and for shared understanding.
Models of reflection are conceptual too – like ‘family’, they offer a structure that can be examined, followed, challenged and critiqued. You may find one useful to help you to get your own thoughts into order, to deal with an issue that is emotionally upsetting or to plan a piece of reflective writing.
Choosing an approach that works for you
We have thought a lot about how to advise you on reflective models; there are so many! In order to make sense of this, firstly we ask you to contemplate the ways in which you learn – what helps and hinders you to learn? Do you think in words, pictures or music? Do you prefer to learn in a quiet room, or are you at your best walking around? We will also offer you a top ten of models to help you to find one you think you could work with, or will match your needs. We will then detail a few approaches that we draw on regularly in this book. However, perhaps most importantly, we will encourage you to contemplate your own model.
Learning styles
The literature on learning styles says that we all tend to have a preferred way of learning (Tileston, 2005). Some literature describes people as ‘reflectors’, ‘pragmatists’, ‘activists’ or ‘theorists’ (Honey & Mumford, 1992). Others suggest that people learn best by ‘seeing’, or ‘doing’, or ‘hearing’ (Fleming, 2001) (see table 2.1).
 | SEARCH AND EXPLORE |
If you are curious to know what your preferred learning style is just type ‘learning style questionnaire’ into any search engine and you will find many free surveys that you can use to explore your own style.
Your self-awareness or a learning style questionnaire may have shown you to be reflective, or to learn best by thinking or drawing; this may influence the model you choose. However, remain open to trying new styles, rather than being restricted by the style you are most familiar with. There is a growing body of evidence that challenges the validity of individual learning styles (Harold, Mark, Doug & Robert, 2008; Sanderson, 2011) and further evidence that, even when we have preferences, this does not necessarily mean we learn more effectively (Koonce, Giuse & Storrow, 2011). Just because ‘reflector’ may not be your strongest style, that does not mean that you cannot learn, or develop reflective skills.
Top ten models
In order to illustrate our point about learning styles, we are going to present the top ten as a written list, as a picture and as a quick-view table.
 | SEARCH AND EXPLORE |
We have given at least one key reference for each of the models, so that you have an academic starting point, but you will also find that there is material about each of them on the internet. Watch out though – you will find that older versions can be confusing, so look for the dates!
The top ten list (in no particular order)
(1) Bolton believes the act of writing down a reflection is itself part of the process of developing the reflection (Bolton, 2010). She describes her model as ‘through the mirror’ writing, using Lewis Carroll’s Alice Through the Looking Glass as a metaphor. The mirror permits us to, or even demands that we, look at the world very differently, and in doing so it reveals unexpected aspects of our understanding and practice. She describes reflection in action as ‘a hawk in the mind constantly circling, watching and advising on practice’ (p. 33). The model asks you to write and re-write a reflection, progressively developing your reflection alone, and with the help of a trusted reader. Doing this is remarkably powerful and you may be surprised at what you produce. It takes a little time and effort to do this, but if writing is a medium you want to use, it’s well worth the effort. In addition, if you are teaching reflection, this may offer you a safe and trustworthy structure.
(2) Moon’s work on keeping a reflective learning journal or diary is more a learning guide than a single model (Moon, 2006). As the reason for keeping a journal will vary, she offers a range of suggestions, techniques and exercises to get the most out of the learning experience. Well worth exploring if keeping a journal is something you want, or are required, to do. It is also useful for teaching.
(3) Schön’s ladder of reflection is a technique to use with a coach (Schön, 1991). The coach may demonstrate, critique, reflect and question, whilst the student observes, reflects, imitates and develops their own practice. The aim is to improve the student’s practice, and to strengthen their confidence and skill. This is intended to be an active approach, with dialogue and movement, not sitting down to talk or write. It is described by Schön for use with architects and musicians, but would work well with any ‘performance’, such as managing a difficult meeting or performing a skill.
(4) Gibbs’ reflective cycle (Gibbs, 1988) is cited in many reflective practice texts (Bulman & Schutz, 2008; Ghaye & Lillyman, 2006). It uses a cyclical set of questions to guide you through thinking about what happened, your thoughts, feelings, analysis and actions. The advantage of this model is its straightforwardness: the questions are not difficult and can be easily applied in more or less any setting. You could use this to reflect alone quietly, to structure an entry in a reflective journal, or to talk through an issue with colleagues or a supervisor. A further advantage is that it includes evaluation and action planning. It is generally not enough just to review a situation; you will want to learn from this and apply that learning in the future. However, it can be used in a very superficial way – it’s up to you to develop it, so it may not really push you to think critically about your practice, or to grow confident in reflective writing.
(5) Mezirow has developed a model of reflection over many decades. He believes that critical reflection can be the trigger to ‘transformative learning’, which is discussed in detail in chapter 1 of his 1990 book (Mezirow, 1990). Reflection is a form of thinking, but is more than just thinking. By assessment of the assumptions on which our thoughts and decisions are based, we can really critique what we do. Thus he is concerned to make us confront the background to our actions, as a way of accessing trans-formative learning – this he considers to be a very important learning act. It is not a model for the faint-hearted, or for a brief dipping of your toes in the water. It is complex and demanding so you may be put off by the dense language and by the many versions as it has developed and changed over time. However, it is probably the most cerebral of the models, so if thinking deeply is something you feel you need or want to do, you may come to find its promise of transforming your learning an addictive choice.
(6) Johns’ model of reflection was designed as an educational tool for nurses learning reflective practice (Johns, 2009), but if you are not a nurse do not be put off – the technique is pretty universal. The model asks the reflector a series of cue and supplementary questions that explore the focus of the reflection, analysis and learning. The question-and-answer format lends itself to supervision, or at least dialogue with one other person, but the detailed structure also means that you can quite effectively use the model on your own. Therefore it has the potential to be used to structure a reflective essay or journal entry and may be very helpful, particularly if you are unsure about reflective writing and want some help, or you are a teacher supporting your students. However, its linear, detailed questioning technique may stifle free-thinking reflection.
(7) Fook and Gardner advocate critical reflection in a group reflective setting where description, reflective questioning and re-thinking theory are important stages (Fook & Gardner, 2007). It is unusual to find a model that actively encourages group discussion, rather than personal introspection or coach/student, supervisor/supervisee relationships. It is also one of the models, like Mezirow’s, that very deliberately pushes the reflector to look beyond themselves and the current situation and to critique the underlying assumptions and constructs. Not one for a beginner to tackle on their own, but a good and challenging option, with great potential as an aid to anyone wanting help with facilitating group reflection.
(8) A simplification of reflection to three cue questions – ‘What? So what? Now what?’ – was first published in 1970 (Borton, 1970), but the model has since been picked up by several other writers (Driscoll, 2000; Rolfe, Jasper & Freshwater, 2011). Driscoll uses it in supervision and, like those of Gibbs and Johns, the model offers a processed series of questions. We think this is the most universal and useful description of this type of model: simple enough for a quick individual reflection but flexible enough to scaffold an essay, a diary entry, blog or group reflection as well as supervision. This is one of our preferred approaches and is described in more detail later in this chapter.
(9) Flanagan’s Critical Incident Technique, also one of our preferred approaches, is not exactly a reflective model, but is so versatile and well used it is one of the techniques examined in more detail below. The aim is to deconstruct an incident in which an intervention has made a difference, to use this to identify good and bad practice and thus improve performance. The technique could be individual, collective, verbal, written, a one-off or a series … thus it is useful in a lot of different circumstances.
(10) Finally, we want to offer you our Reflective Timeline: not a model, more a way of thinking we have developed through talking about, and writing, this book. The full outline is provided later in the chapter; it was born out of the ways in which we described reflection to each other, and our wish to move away from cyclical models in which professionals can get stuck and struggle to move on. It has sufficient structure to help in putting a reflection together, but is fluid and flexible.
 | SEARCH AND EXPLORE |
All of the models mentioned in the clouds in figure 2.1, except for the Reflective Timeline, can be found on the internet – type in some detail and have a look for yourself.
Figure 2.1 The top ten picture
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