INTRODUCTION

Most educators take learning very seriously, especially those in health care.

They overlook the fact that humor is a lifeline to sanity and reality. Humor is not a primary teaching strategy and it is quite difficult to measure the educational effect of humor in isolation from other teaching methods. The judicious use of humor can influence the cognitive and behavioral aspects of learning by engaging at least six of Gardner’s seven forms of intelligence (as identified in Chapter 1). Research on humor has been a multidisciplinary endeavor, including a focus on use in classrooms and health care (Adamle, Chiang-Hanisko, Ludwick, Zeller,

& Brown, 2007; Chauvet & Hofmeyer, 2007; Garner, 2006; Kher, 2003; Kher, Molstad, & Donahue, 1999; Wrench & McCroskey, 2001; Ziegler, 1998). Well-placed humor can make the classroom environment a safe, comfortable, and effective arena for cognitive and professional growth. Educators have used humor to alleviate classroom stress and facilitate knowledge acquisition and application for decades. Humor contributes to a positive affect and, to that end, humor has been used as a teaching tool for generations. Effectively using humor in the classroom requires knowledge, art, and skill, all of which may be learned (Garner, 2005, 2006; Hellman, 2007; Hillman, 2001; Kher, 2003; Ziegler, 1998). This chapter will highlight humor as an educator’s tool and describe specific strategies for humor use in the classroom.

DEFINITION AND PURPOSE

Humor is a communication that induces amusement. Thus, it must be shared.

It makes the learning environment a shared, pleasurable experience. In education, the most positive forms of humor are funny stories or comments, jokes, 97

98 CHAPTER 7 • LIGHTEN UP YOUR CLASSROOM

and professional humor. Sarcasm has been recorded as common in the classroom, but tends to be a negative form of humor. Wit is the cognitive process that elicits humor. Mirth is the emotional reaction to humor, joy, and pleasure.

Laughter or smiling is a physical expression of humor. With all these elements, the formal study of humor in the classroom has been a challenge. A decade ago, the literature on the use of humor in healthcare education was predominantly opinion pieces or reviews as opposed to actual evidence, although at least a dozen studies of humor were conducted in educational settings (Ziegler, 1998).

Whether the evidence is as sound as it should be remains equivocal, but lately the majority of authors praise its contributions to the educational experience (Chauvet & Hofmeyer, 2007; Dormann & Biddle, 2006; Garner, 2005, 2006; Hillman, 2001; James, 2004; Priest, 2007; Southam & Schwartz, 2004; Torok, McMorris, & Lin, 2004).

Humor has been studied and discussed from a variety of approaches—the physiologic, psychologic, emotional, and cognitive. Recent reviews have summarized these studies (Southam & Schwartz, 2004; Torok et al., 2004) and confirmed that humor can promote health as well as learning through the physical benefits of reduced stress, increased productivity, and enhanced creativity. Humor has been deemed a primary vehicle for enhancing the learning environment through enlivening potentially dreary topics, keeping lectures engaging and enjoyable, and humanizing faculty in students’ perceptions. The cultivation of the abilities to laugh at oneself and with others bridges many gaps between people and broadens the pathway from student to professional as well as professional to client/patient (Adamle et al., 2007; Flowers, 2001; Priest, 2007).

The use of humor in the classroom can be productive, promoting comfortable, safe interactions between faculty and students. It has been shown to increase teacher credibility (Garner, 2006; Torok et al., 2004). The effective use of humor promotes creativity, learning, retention, and enculturation of professionals (Adamle et al., 2007; Chauvet & Hofmeyer, 2007; Boerman-Cornell, 2000; Dormann & Biddle, 2006; Flournoy, Turner, & Combs, 2001; Girdlefanny, 2004; Southam & Schwartz, 2004; Thorne, 1999). Counterproductive humor can cause fear and hostility, decrease self-esteem and motivation, and disrupt the community within the classroom and work settings (Boerman-Cornell, 2000; Ciesielka, Conway, Penrose, & Risco, 2005; Girdlefanny, 2004; Hurren, 2006; Meyer, 1997; Weber, 2000).

Both White (2001) and Torok et al. (2004) studied whether perceptions regarding the use of humor were correlated between professors and students, whether students thought more favorably of professors who used humor, and what types of humor were preferred. Their findings had strong correlations between perceptions in the use of funny stories, funny comments, jokes, and professional humor. Students were not supportive of humor in testing, nor the use of sarcasm.

Theoretical Foundations 99

Shibles’ (1989) analysis of humor declares ridicule and sarcasm are used as a superiority differentiation or as a defense mechanism and therefore do not qualify as types of humor. Educators need to be cognizant of this because such a misuse of humor will be counterproductive in the classroom. Students often found humor facilitated attention, morale, and comprehension. Gender differences in student’s perceptions of humor use, with female faculty’s use of humor less likely to be recognized, has also been noted (White, 2001). White’s study identified agreement between professors and students regarding humor as a tool to relieve stress, create a healthy learning environment, gain attention, and motivate students. An item of greatest variation between faculty and student perceptions was in the use of humor to handle unpleasant situations—students believed it could be used, but faculty did not.

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS

Humor is a complex phenomenon with a long and rich history. While no one has been able to establish when the first joke actually occurred, we know the Greek theatre used both comedy and drama to entertain and enlighten. Many authors, such as Dickens and Swift, used satire to comment on society. Theoretical foundations of humor are multiple (Shibles, 1989). They have been categorized by discipline (biological, cognitive, physiological, linguistic, etc.) and construct (incongruity, superiority, etc.) (Ziegler, 1998). Boyd (2004) purports that humor and laughter relate to play theory and, thus, create a sense of shared playfulness.

He suggests that this sense of playfulness opens the participants to creative and critical thinking and action, while simultaneously alerting and disarming them in an environment of mutual trust and enjoyment. Effective use of humor may be a component of all learning theories. Humor and laughter contribute to all necessary principles of learning: enjoyment; creativity; interest; motivation; a relaxed, open, warm environment; a positive student–teacher relationship; and decreased tension and anxiety. To be authentic is one of the most important qualities of an educator. Having a sense of humor is an aspect of authenticity (Hellman, 2007; Lottes, 2008). Humor used constructively builds a positive self-image (Chauvet & Hofmeyer, 2007; Garner, 2005, 2006; Hellman, 2007; Priest, 2007).

Cognitive and affective theories appear the most important for education, as they account for linguistic, intellectual, and emotional aspects of learning. Some humor theories state that laughter or amusement occurs as an intellectual reaction to something unexpected, illogical, or inappropriate in some way (Boyd, 2004; Shibles, 1989). Cognitive theory focuses on an understanding of language, knowledge, situation, and reasoning that addresses recognition of mistakes, incongruity, and wordplays. Research indicates that the recognition of incongruity 100 Chapter 7 • Lighten Up YoUr CLassroom

begins in infancy (Boyd, 2004; Wild, Rodden, Grodd, & Ruch, 2003). Puns, irony, and satire require analysis and synthesis of words, knowledge, and context (Boyd, 2004; Wild et al., 2003). Without such understanding, students do not perceive the humor and may take affront or feel put-down by the instructor. When students understand a concept well they can make jokes or funny remarks about it, indicating their synthesis of the material. Cognition is shaped by culture and humor has been defined as culturally appropriate incongruity (Boyd, 2004; Chauvet & Hofmeyer, 2007; Wrench & McCroskey, 2001).

According to Bloom, affect is an important domain of learning. Those theorists who subscribe to affective theory stress emotional components of humor. However, it seems inadequate to treat affect as separate from cognition, because emotion is largely constituted by thought (Shibles, 1989). There has been extensive discussion regarding the emotional and physiologic benefits of releasing psychic energy through laughter. Because of this, humor is an invaluable contribution to the educational process. Its use creates an affirmation of shared understanding and experience (Boyd, 2004). Research supports its use to reduce anxiety and stress, build confidence, improve productivity, reduce boredom, heighten interest, and encourage divergent thinking and the creation of new ideas (Chauvet & Hofmeyer, 2007; Dormann & Biddle, 2006; Weber, 2000; Ziegler, 1998).

The affective component of humor engages the limbic system thereby enhancing short- and long-term memory, and increasing the willingness of the learner to apply knowledge and skills (Flournoy et al., 2001; Hillman, 2001; Southam

& Schwartz, 2004). The expression of feelings, such as empathy and anger, can be more constructive when approached in a witty manner (Hillman, 2001). Both sides of the brain are actively engaged during laughter and the perception of humor (Southam & Schwartz, 2004). The right side of the brain involves reading and interpreting the visual, nonverbal information of humor while the left side of the brain interprets the language nuances of humor. Novelty, imagination, and visualization help move information into long-term memory through the engagement of multiple brain cells firing simultaneously (Southam & Schwartz, 2004; Weber, 2000; Wild et al., 2003; Wrench & McCroskey, 2001). However, there is still much research to be done about the neuroscience related to humor and the perceptions about what is humorous (Wild et al., 2003).

TYPES OF LEARNERS

Humor is a type of playfulness that spans multiple ages and venues. Developmentally and intellectually appropriate humor can be employed with all levels of learner. Classroom humor relevant to course content is more appreciated by Conditions for Learning 101

the adult learner than random humor. It is also necessary to be aware of students’

cultural backgrounds as words and concepts may have different meanings and be misperceived, or worse, be taboo to discuss (Axtell, 1999). Studies have provided mixed reviews about students’ acceptance and appreciation of humor used by the teacher. Some studies have shown that gender impacts the acceptance and use of humor, as does the match between the educators’ and students’ sense of humor (Martin, Puhlik-Doris, Larsen, Gray, & Weir, 2003). The associations found between intellectual ability and sense of humor suggest that educators need a firm check on the cognitive status of their students when employing wit or they risk offending rather than amusing them (Boyd, 2004; LaFarge, 2004; Wild et al., 2003).

Gorham and Christophel (1990, as cited by Southam & Schwartz, 2004) found that learning outcomes of female students were not as influenced by teacher humor as were outcomes in male students whose achievement was enhanced through the use of humor. Females, while not appreciably influenced by humor in that study, did prefer personal stories that illustrated pertinent points related to course content. Student reaction to humor has been differentially related to the gender of the educator as well, with female educators eliciting less overall appreciation of their efforts to be humorous (White, 2001). Acceptance of humor in the classroom has been shown to be positively associated with a student’s psychological health (Dziegielewski, Jacinto, Laudadio, & Legg-Rodriguez, 2003; Kuiper, Grimshaw, Leite, & Kirsh, 2004).

CONDITIONS FOR LEARNING

Humor can be used judiciously throughout a class session or course and in all types of classroom situations: lecture, lab, fieldwork, and various course assignments. Mood can enhance or inhibit the reception of humor (Wild et al., 2003), making it imperative to read the class members accurately and create a positive and pleasant classroom experience. Positive and constructive humor can be used to put the learner and the teacher at ease with the subject matter (Garner 2005, 2006; Hellman, 2007). Humorous activities, or icebreakers, that relate to the class session topic might begin a class. These activities can also be inserted at intervals to reaffirm the open, relaxed atmosphere that is most conducive to learning. Tension relievers before exams are usually helpful. As long as the humor remains embedded in the content, learners will internalize the new knowledge, otherwise the flow of the lesson can be lost or misdirected (Weaver & Cotrell, 2001). Humor can be used to facilitate creativity and retention of material at any point in a lesson—from initial setup, through final review (Chauvet & Hofmeyer, 2007; Garner, 2006; Hellman, 2007).

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Relationship between class size and classroom size may impact the effective use of humor. Berk (2002, as cited by Torok et al., 2004) noted that laughter is likely to be greater in larger, more crowded classes, than in smaller classes in larger rooms. Laughter, like yawning, is contagious; so once a large group gets going it may take time to bring them back to focus. Dziegielewski and colleagues (2003) encourage the group leader, educator in this case, not to stop the laughter but to let it stop on its own accord. They perceive that this laughter helps reduce anger and tension, and may build cohesion and well-being—both of which are essential to productivity and learning.

Humor is a part of communication and not dependent on the natural come-dic ability of an instructor. It is an attitude and permission for enjoyment of the educational process (Adamle et al., 2007; Chauvet & Hofmeyer, 2007; Joyner

& Young, 2006; Weaver & Cotrell, 2001). It can be spontaneous or planned.

Weaver and Cottrell recommend inserting humorous breaks every 15 minutes.

Essential to creating open communication and allowing humor within the classroom is the teacher’s nonverbal communication and voice tone, as these can convey openness or constrict enjoyment of learning. If the humor style of the teacher and that of the class do not mesh, then the use of humor in the learning process will not be effective. It is important to understand your audience, which, in this case is the class and to know one’s own sense of humor and be willing to experiment with others (Garner, 2006; Girdlefanny, 2004; Hellman 2007; Wild et al., 2003).

Humor is not necessarily universally appropriate. McMorris, Boothroyd, and Pietrangelo (1997) summarized studies that used humor in testing situations with mixed results. Positive results depended on the type of humor used. Some studies found humor to reduce tension, but others found it to be distracting in a testing situation. Humor with a strong linguistic base may also disadvantage international students. Likewise, as mentioned previously, any use of sarcasm was seen to be detrimental to learning (Garner, 2006; Hellman 2007; Meyer, 1997; Torok et al., 2004).

Humor can be very useful in the enculturation of novices into one’s profession, especially when dealing with elements of embarrassing intimacy and reality shocks that may occur in healthcare provision (Adamle et al., 2007; Southam

& Schwartz, 2004). According to Sultanoff (1995), a lack of sense of humor is related to lower self-esteem. On the other hand, a healthy sense of humor is related to being able to laugh as one’s self and one’s life without degrading oneself.

Those who enter the health professions must be able to cope with adversity and be able to help others cope as well (Adamle et al., 2007). The development of a healthy sense of humor, beginning in preservice classes and continuing through professional in-services, benefits everyone.

Resources 103

RESOURCES

As with any teaching strategy, the effective use of humor needs to be learned and refined. Before using humor in teaching situations, educators may want to assess their own sense of humor using a humor profile such as the one developed by Richmond, Wrench, and Gorham (2001) (Please see Appendix 7-1 on the Web site that accompanies this book). The score obtained on the humor profile reflects one’s use of humor during communications. Completion of a humor profile is a preliminary step to learning one’s current facility with humorous content.

Some ways to increase one’s use of humor is by exposing oneself to and collecting humorous experiences, such as reading comics, sitcoms, joke books; visiting comedy clubs; and even looking for the humor around oneself. This may include viewing the world through exaggeration or broad, silly perspectives. Using exaggeration is a method to clarify concepts—the contrast assists understanding. Incongruity is another technique for promoting humor in the classroom. One such example is comparing a stripper and a corporate CEO regaining work skills (see applied example later). Creating a top 10 list of teacher pet peeves or preferred learning behaviors can be a humorous way to share class performance expectations (Kher, 2003; Kher et al., 1999). Using props in the classroom for role playing may also enhance the humor of a lesson (Joyner

& Young, 2006; Polek, 2007; Priest, 2007; Sultanoff, 1995). The cinema or YouTube are treasure troves of humorous situations waiting to be tapped by the healthcare professional looking for examples of exaggeration, incongruity, or basic fun (Polek, 2007).

Articles about infusing humor into online courses have suggested a number of techniques to promote a positive learning environment in the virtual classroom that mirror applications of humor in the regular classroom. Primary among these techniques is the use of humor to project an authentic representation of the educator. The humor used, by necessity, is primarily linguistic, although cartoons are readily available (James, 2004). Being humorous online requires extensive commitment, time, and effort as it needs to be planned, personalized to the students, and monitored for receptivity (Boynton as cited by James, 2004).

1. Web resources

Humor Matters Bibliography and Resources, retrieved from http://www

.humormatters.com/bibindex.htm

Listing of potentially relevant films (primarily on mental illness), retrieved from http://www.disabilityfilms.co.uk/mental1/men1dex.htm

104 Chapter 7 • Lighten Up YoUr CLassroom

2. Sources for cartoon humor

Cartoons from the New Yorker magazine, retrieved from http://www

.cartoonbank.com

Single cartoons by Randy Glasbergen, often about business or family, retrieved from http://www.glasbergen.com/

Variety of popular newspaper cartoon serials, retrieved from http://www

.gocomics.com/explore/comics

3. Print Resources

Print versions of cartoons ( Far Side, For Better or Worse, Calvin and Hobbes, etc.), local newspapers, bookstores

Desk calendars such as “A Little Bit of Oy;” “The Far Side,” and “Charlie Brown”

Cathcart, T., & Klein, D. (2007). Plato and a platypus walk into a bar: Understanding philosophy through jokes. New York: Penguin Group, Inc.

Tibballs, G. (2000). The mammoth book of humor. New York: Carroll & Graf Check the humor section of any bookstore.

USING THE METHOD

The use of humor can be learned, and has a growing evidence base, yet remains highly individualized. Gender, culture, ethnicity, mood, and context impact the acceptance or rejection of this teaching strategy (Garner, 2005, 2006; Wild et al., 2003; Ziegler, 1998). Wanzer and Frymier (1999) found that witty, rather than funny, professors were considered interesting, entertaining, and motivating by adult learners. Robinson is often cited (Hillman, 2001; Southam & Schwartz, 2004) as proposing four interrelated aspects to be considered in the area of education and humor: (1) enhancing the learning process itself through humor; (2) using humor to facilitate the process of socialization; (3) teaching the concept of humor as a communication and intervention tool; and (4) modeling the use of humor as a vehicle for facilitating the other three. Using humor in the classroom is not attempting to become a comedian. It is assuming an attitude of authenticity and comfort within the classroom (Garner, 2005, 2006; Hellman, 2007; Lottes, 2008; Polek, 2007). The ability to learn to use humor has been questioned by a few authors (Wrench & McCroskey, 2001). These authors distinguish sense of humor, a culturally taught trait, from the act of being humorous, which may be a genetic trait. However, most authors promote the idea that the use of humor not only can be learned, but ought to be learned by educators to enhance the teaching–learning process (Adamle et al., 2007; Chauvet & Hofmeyer, 2007; Using the Method 105

Dormann & Biddle, 2006; Flowers, 2001; Garner, 2006; Girdlefanny, 2004; Priest, 2007; Yura-Petro, 1991). Employing humorous methods is within every educator’s reach and will enhance the educational experience for students.

Using humor in the learning process can take several forms (Fig. 7-1). It is easy for most faculty to use spontaneous storytelling by relating their own experiences to enhance the learning process. Other faculty may need to collect jokes, cartoons, movie excerpts, and humorous exercises to insert into their regular teaching activities to enhance the learner’s receptivity to information and participation during content presentations. Tamblyn (2003) highly recommends the frequent use of visuals such as cartoons, posters, and other images throughout an educational presentation to enhance the impact of the content. From a cognitive load perspective, the use of cartoons may enhance recall and retention due to the complimentary effect of visual and verbal information processing, as long as the cartoon/text match is consistent with the course content and learning level of the student (Khalil, Paas, Johnson, & Payer, 2005). As has been mentioned, faculty must realize that what works for some people does not necessarily work for others (Boyd, 2004; Hillman, 2001; Tamblyn, 2003; Wild et al., 2003).

Some specific techniques for including humor in a class situation include posting humorous situations on a bulletin board to teach interactive concepts (Flournoy et al., 2001). Using irony to contrast expected outcomes and actual occurrence enhances remembrance because of incongruity (Thorne, 1999). Case studies with funny names related to topical content also enhance memory of the examples. (Example: Petunia Potter liked working in her garden. She needed some ergonomic changes to facilitate her participation in this avocation; how would you adapt this occupation for her?) Use of exaggerations and unusual professions increases awareness of people’s needs in the healthcare arena. Personal stories Figure 7-1 Tips for using humor in the classroom.

1. Create a casual (and safe) atmosphere

2. Smile; adopt a laugh-ready attitude

3. Relax, use open, nonverbal posture; increase interpersonal contact through eye-to-eye and face-to-face contact

4. Remove social inhibitions; establish nonjudgmental forum for discussion 5. Begin class with a humorous example, cartoon, anecdote, or thought for the day 6. Use personal stories, anecdotes, current events related to class content 7. Plan frequent breaks in content for application, humorous commercials, or exaggerated examples; provide humorous materials

8. Encourage give and take with students; laugh at yourself occasionally Source: Adapted from Weaver & Cotrell, 2001; Provine, 2000.

106 Chapter 7 • Lighten Up YoUr CLassroom

about real life experiences and challenges in one’s role as a new professional, or unexpected circumstances (or embarrassing moment) can have teaching value.

Sometimes when students are called on to do group presentations on a given topic they will use humor (often in the form of mimicry or parody of the instructors) to engage their classmates and, possibly, to alleviate their own stress. Humor usage will be as variable as those using it, which can be quite diverse (Chauvet

& Hofmeyer, 2007; Garner, 2006; Hellman, 2007; Priest, 2007).

A picture’s meaning can express ten thousand words —often misquoted Chinese proverb

POTENTIAL PROBLEMS

Not everyone gets a joke (Boyd, 2004; Wild et al., 2003). Some people are too serious. Some do not value humor in the educational process. Some find it too distracting to their learning. Using sarcasm, ridicule, and put-down humor can be counterproductive. Humor has the potential to be offensive, especially with ethnic, cultural, or gender issues. Incongruence between innate or cultural humor perceptions can be disruptive to the coordination of the learning environment.

Besides potentially offending some members of a class, the use of deprecatory humor may affect student’s perceptions of the faculty and undermine their effectiveness. Class clowns, who use humor for personal gain, also abuse the strategy and detract from the learning environment (Martin et al., 2003).

Figure 7-2 An example of a joke that may be appropriate for a class on clinical reasoning.

Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson went camping. After a good meal and an excellent bottle of wine, they lay down and went to sleep. A couple of hours later, Holmes woke up and nudged his faithful friend.

“Watson, Watson,” he said. “Look up at the sky and tell me what you see?”

“I see millions and millions of stars,” replied Watson.

“And what does that tell you?” inquired the master detective.

Watson thought for a moment, “Well, Holmes, astronomically, it tells me that there are millions of galaxies and potentially billions of planets. Astrologically, I observe that Saturn is in Leo. Horologically, I deduce that the time is approximately 2:25. Theologically, I can see that god is all powerful and that we are small and in-significant. Meteorologically, I believe we will have a glorious day tomorrow. What does it tell you, Holmes?”

“Watson, you imbecile! Some thief has stolen our tent!”

Source: Tibballs, G. (2000). The mammoth book of humor. New York: Carroll & Graf; joke 2470.

References 107

CONCLUSION

It has been said that Plato believed one could discover more about a person in an hour of play than in a year of conversation. The same could be said about the culture of a classroom, cohort, or department. Teaching–learning communities are built on engagement and communication amongst students and faculty. The development of respect and desire to learn can be facilitated with the thoughtful use of humor. All involved will find their creativity, enjoyment, and problem solving boosted by this cognitively stimulating and emotionally safe learning environment.

APPLIED EXAMPLE(S)

At the beginning of a class, in this case a pediatrics class on toddler development, cartoons that related to the lecture topic were used as a starting point for discussion. The cartoons had been selected from the daily newspaper over a span of years, and so there were many examples of toddler behaviors to choose from. Students who had their own children, or younger siblings, were able to immediately relate to the cartoon situations and discuss the behaviors depicted as wel as other toddler behaviors and observations they had seen. Students without children and siblings participated in the discussion by asking questions of those with more experience. A lively discussion ensued. When presented with the accompanying reading material or tested on the material at a later date students exhibited better retention and recal of the information and the discussion that occurred around the visual cue of the cartoon.

Another example of a humor-enhanced class discussion related to client-centered evaluation by using exaggerated comparison and contrast of a stripper and a CEO’s daily activity routines, expectations, and needs. Students started discussing their perceived stereotypes of these exaggerated individuals and, as new elements of typical activities of daily living were tossed out to the students to analyze for these individuals, another lively discussion occurred. When assessed for their understanding of activities of daily living evaluations, analyses, and syntheses for treatment plans, students exhibited a greater understanding of these processes related to individualized care with attention to details.

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Wrench, J., & McCroskey, J. (2001). A temperamental understanding of humor communication and exhilaratability. Communication Quarterly, 49, 142–159.

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Ziegler, J. B. (1998). Use of humour in medical teaching. Medical Teacher, 20(4), 341–348.

SECTION II

Teaching in STr uc Tur ed SeTTing S

Section II presents concept-based topics that are applicable in a myriad of situations, regardless of the level of the learner, the topic, or the class size. This section focuses on the structured (i.e., traditional) classroom setting. Yet the universal concepts evident in each chapter include the importance of planning and preparation on the part of the teacher, the manner in which information is conveyed, and the importance of active student involvement and responsibility for learning.

The principles presented in Section I, the Introduction, are used in the traditional classroom environments addressed in these chapters. Application of teaching and learning theories and planned activities directed toward critical thinking are apparent. Educators can use creative innovations with time-honored strategies, such as lecture, to bring a refreshing approach to teaching.

111

CHAPTER 8

Lecture: Reclaiming a

Place in Pedagogy

Barbara C. Woodring and Richard C. Woodring

A common characteristic found in all great teachers is a love of their subject, an obvious satisfaction found in arousing this love in their students, and an ability to convince them that what they are being taught is deadly serious.

—J. Epstein

INTRODUCTION

I recently read a report dealing with the evolution of the chief learning officer (CLO) within major industries (Huntley, 2009). I was reminded just how important it is to be an educator regardless of the setting, how important it is to know your students (the audience), and how critical it is to know the best strategies to help a student/participant to learn. I was also introduced to a new term, one to which I could immediately attach meaning: edutainment. (Huntley, 2009). Ms. Huntley, a global CLO for an international corporation, believes:

Education is no longer enough. Learners expect to be engaged and entertained more than ever . . . [learners] are exposed to a variety of stimulating and on-demand media sources daily . . . learning modes need to be equally engaging (Huntley, 2009, p. 32).

And yet, I am reminded that the methodology that remains the backbone by which knowledge is conveyed in most educational settings is the lecture. How, then, can educators merge the need for interactive variety, edutainment, while implementing the most commonly utilized teaching method? Hopefully the information in this chapter will assist in addressing that question.

The authors of other chapters in this text provide insight into creative and innovative teaching approaches that are currently used in higher education.

The implementation and refinement of these strategies/methods during the last decade tends to relegate the use of the lecture methodology to a lesser stature.

Rather than revere what had previously been considered the educational gold-standard, it became trendy to “lecture bash,” to describe colleagues who used lecture techniques as old-fashioned and out of step with educational trends. Many educators added the term “lecture” to their list of unspeakable, four-letter words.

But a lecture is only a means to an end. Intrinsically, it is neither good nor bad; its success depends on how it is delivered.

113

114 CHAPTER 8 • LECTURE: RECLAIMING A PLACE IN PEDAGOGY

In practice, the lecture format is alive and well and remains one of the most frequently utilized teaching methods in the repertoire of postsecondary educators.

When the objective is to communicate basic facts, introduce initial concepts, or convey passion about a topic, a well prepared lecture is very useful (Cox & Rogers, 2005; Gleitman, 2006). In this chapter, readers will find rationale for the long-term popularity of this teaching strategy, suggestions regarding how to improve its utilization, and tips on ways to become a better lecturer.

DEFINITION AND PURPOSES

By definition, the lecture is one method of presenting information to an audience. Cox and Rogers (2005) described a well-designed lecture as “an instructor-led, interactive experience that actively engages students in the process of learning and can support diverse student learning” (p. 1). This recent definition indicates how far the educational process has come. Prior to the invention of the printing press, when only scholars had access to handwritten information sources, the lecture was the primary means of transmitting knowledge. Learners would gather around the master-teacher and take notes related to what was said. The lecture remained the common mode of disseminating information until printed resources and technological advancements became more available and affordable.

It would appear that when students were able to purchase their own textbooks, and then computers, methods of presenting information would have changed.

Interestingly, change has occurred slowly. Today, with e-books and technology galore, the lecture remains a commonly used technique. It is suggested that there are two major reasons for this longevity: (1) most current educators learned via the lecture format, and it is well known that individuals teach as they were taught unless they make a specific effort to alter their approaches; and (2) the lecture is the safest and easiest teaching method, allowing the teacher the most control within the classroom setting. Some of the common advantages and disadvantages of using the lecture method are listed in Tables 8-1 and 8-2. Whatever the rationale, positive outcomes can still be achieved by using the lecture, especially when the lecture and lecturer are well prepared.

THEORETICAL RATIONALE

Few lecturers take time to contemplate the theoretical basis of their practice, but the lack of a theoretical or organizational framework may be one reason that learners perceive some lectures to be disorganized and/or difficult to follow.

Theoretical Rationale 115

Table 8-1 Advantages of Using Lectures as a Teaching Strategy Advantages of a Lecture

Secondary Gain in Use of Lecture

Permits teacher maximum control of

Relieves teacher anxiety of handling

class

unexpected questions

Creates minimal threats to students or

Lack of interaction or student

teacher

participation may be desired

Clarifies and enlivens information that

Highlights enthusiasm/personality of

seem tedious in text

teacher for topic

Enables clarification of confusing/

Avoids frustration of time delayed

intricate points immediately

responses or clarification

The teacher knows what has been

Diminishes the “I never heard that

presented

before” comment by students

Lecture material can become basis of

Contributes to academic scholarship

publication

Students are provided with a common

May help student to prepare for testing

core of content

Accommodates larger numbers of

High priority in weak economy and/or

listeners at one setting

teacher shortage

Saves time

Teacher can present key points in much

less time than it takes to elicit from text

or extensive list of references

Provides venue to become known as an

Contribute to the scholarship of teaching

expert in specific topic

Encourages and allows deductive

Can support principles of critical

reasoning

analysis if desired

Enthusiasm of teacher motivates students

Reinforces professional role modeling

to participate and learn more

(continued)

116 Chapter 8 • LeCture: reCLaiming a pLaCe in pedagogy Table 8-1 Advantages of Using Lectures as a Teaching Strategy (Continued) Advantages of a Lecture

Secondary Gain in Use of Lecture

Allows addition of the newest

Can support concept of evidence-based

information on a moment’s notice

practice with “just-in-time” data

Permits auditory learners to receive

Encourages higher level learner, not rote

succinct information quickly

memorization

Enables integration of pro and con

aspects of topic

Source: Adapted from Woodring, B., & Woodring, R. (2007). Lecture is not a four-letter word. In M. Bradshaw & A. Lowenstein (Eds.), Innovative teaching strategies in nursing and related health professions (4th ed., p. 111). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.

Foundational principles for a lecture presentation may be derived from a variety of philosophical and theoretical processes. Three common approaches flow from theories related to communication, cognitive learning, and pedagogical/

andragogical approaches to teaching and learning. The theories supporting effective communications should be common knowledge to all healthcare providers; therefore, they are not discussed here. Healthcare educators should have an understanding of cognitive learning theory since it is the underpinning of developmental concepts found in most health-related courses. Pedagogical/andragogical approaches may not be as well understood and are addressed briefly.

Over the past few decades, graduate education for many health professionals has emphasized disciplinary skills. Nursing and physical therapy, for instance, have focused on advanced practice skills resulting in clinical specialization (CNS), nurse practitioners (NP), and the professional doctorate degrees (DPT/

DNP). This change has resulted in limited numbers of newer faculty members who are prepared in areas of curricular design and learning theory. Pedagogy is a portion of learning theory that loosely refers to educating the chronologically or experientially immature. In a pedagogical approach, someone external to the learner decides who, what, when, where, and how information will be taught; the learner becomes a passive recipient of knowledge. Historically, professionally health-related content and practice has been taught from a framework and has been based upon the medical model. Within the pedagogical context, the lecture strategy establishes the teacher as the one in command, the authority from whom answers come. This approach may provide a rationale for lecturing being viewed Theoretical Rationale 117

Table 8-2 Disadvantages of Using Lectures as a Teaching Strategy Disadvantages of a Lecture

Teacher may attempt to cover too much material in abbreviated time frame Less effective when not accompanied by another teaching strategy Eighty percent of lecture information is forgotten 1 day later and 80% of remainder fades in 1 month

Presumes that all students are auditory learners and learn at the same rate Alone, the lecture is not suited to higher levels of thinking Not conducive for personalized instruction

Encourages passive learners

Provides little feedback to learners

Student attention wavers in 30 minutes or less

Not appropriate for children below 4th grade level

Consistent use inhibits development of inductive reasoning Poorly delivered lecture acts as a disincentive for learning Viewed by students as a complete learning experience; think lecturer presents all they need to know

Affective learning seldom occurs in a lecture-only format

118 Chapter 8 • LeCture: reCLaiming a pLaCe in pedagogy as “traditional” and out of step with innovation and creativity in the academy.

Over the years, both the age and experiential backgrounds of “traditional” college students have shifted, causing scholars to question the appropriateness of the previously used pedagogical methods. In response, educators such as Knowles (1970), Kidd (1973), and Cross (1986) introduced and refined the concept of andragogy. The principles previously utilized in teaching the young (pedagogy) were adapted and applied to “mature” learners (andragogy).

Those educators who ascribe to andragogical theory treat the learner as a mature individual who brings a variety of rich, valuable experiences to every learning situation. The who, what, when, and where of learning emanate from within the learner. Each model has value and the needs of the learner should determine the singular or blended approach utilized. Table 8-3 illustrates the comparison of andragogy and pedagogy within the educational process.

TYPES OF LEARNERS

The information included in Table 8-3 emphasizes that the teacher must know as much as possible about both the learners and the topic before deciding on a specific theoretical approach/model and/or teaching strategy. The concept of know-thy-student has always been important; however, now it is not only important, it is critical. Many classrooms are filled with students born after 1980

who have been raised in the wireless, techno age while the faculty may be uncomfortable even communicating electronically. This means that in order to bridge this generation gap, the teacher must understand and acknowledge that the new learner has a very short attention span, an arsenal of electronic devices at their finger tips (and in your classroom), is used to multitasking (answering text messages and listening to electro-tunes while reading about neuroanatomy), and is used to handling a rapid barrage of information. In order to address these different learning needs, the proficient teacher will accompany the lecture with other adjuncts, such as electronic innovations (e.g., Second Life), video clips, lecture–discussion (addressed later in this chapter), case studies, and questions/

answers accompanied by automated audience response systems (the “clicker”), to accommodate the new and/or adult learner.

A lecture can be used effectively with learners who represent a variety of developmental and cognitive levels. Adaptability is one of its most positive aspects.

A teacher may, at a moment’s notice, alter the teaching style, depth, sophistication, and level of the material being presented. These alterations can be made based on the needs, interests, and/or responses of the learners; new scientific revelations; or breaking news from the media. It is assumed that the lecturer has a sufficient command of the subject matter, the presence of mind, and the Types of Learners 119

Table 8-3 Comparison of Characteristics: Andragogy vs Pedagogy Characteristic

Pedagogy

Andragogy

Concept of learner

Dependent

Independent/autonomous

Passive learner

Self-directed

Needs someone outside self

Wants to participate in

to make decisions about

decisions related to own

what, when, and how to

learning

learn

Students will increase effort

if rewarded rather than

punished

Roles of learner’s

Past experiences given little

Wide range of experience,

experiences

attention

not just in nursing, that

Narrow, focused interest

impacts life/learning

Focuses on imitation

Broad interests; likes to share

previous experience with

others

Focus on originality

Readiness to learn

Determined by someone else Usually in the educational

(society, teachers)

process because they have

Focus on what is needed to

chosen to be

survive and achieve

Wants to assist in setting the

Tends to respond impulsively

learning agenda

Tends to respond rationally

Orientation of

Looks to teacher to identify

Teachers are facilitators,

teaching/learning

what should be learned

providing resources and

and to provide the infor-

supports for self-directed

mation/process to learn

learners

Focuses on particulars

Likes challenging,

concerned with the

independent assignments

superficial aspects of

that are reality based

learning (grades, due

Evaluation is done jointly by

dates)

teacher, learner, and/or

Evaluation of learning done

peers

by teacher or society

Tolerates ambiguity

(grades, certificates)

Needs clarity/specificity

120 Chapter 8 • LeCture: reCLaiming a pLaCe in pedagogy flexibility to alter the content and teaching plan; however, these assumptions may not be accurate with novice educators, or when material is being presented the first time.

Combining the lecture with pedagogical approaches can be especially useful in basic and/or beginning courses in a sequence, as well as in orientation to new clinical areas or agencies. Novice learners of any age tend to prefer the structure of pedagogy, rather than the more flexible andragogical approach; however, the more mature and secure teachers and learners become, the more they enjoy the flexibility and challenge of integrating andragogical concepts into the lecture format.

Types of Lecturers

Lectures survive because, like bullfights and “Gone With the Wind,” they satisfy the need for dramatic spectacle and offer an interpersonal arena in which important psychological needs are met (Lowman, 1995). A teacher may vary a lecture from a very formal presentation to a much less formal monologue. Lowman described three types of lectures commonly used: formal, expository, and provocative. The formal lecture is sometimes referred to as an oral essay. In the formal setting, the lecturer delivers a well organized, tightly constructed, highly polished presentation. The information provided primarily supports a specific point and usually is backed by theory and research. The presentation may be written and read to the audience, although recent data indicates that most learners do not like lecture materials to be read to them (Masie, 2006). Preparation of a formal lecture is time consuming; therefore, is not used for every class period during a school term. It may, however, be appropriate to tie things together either at the beginning and/or end of a course, or to address specified topical area. One of the major problems with a formal lecture is that it ignores the interactive dimension and sometimes fails to motivate learners.

A variation on the formal lecture is lecture-recitation. This process is an integration into the formal lecture: The lecturer stops and asks a student to respond to a particular point or idea by reading/presenting prepared materials. An example of this approach may be a formal lecture related to the pathophysiology of sickle cell anemia (SCA), followed by a student-presented case study about a patient with SCA.

The expository lecture is considered the most typical type of lecture. It is much less elaborate than the formal oral essay. Although the lecturer does most of the talking, questions from learners are entertained.

In the provocative lecture, the instructor still does most of the talking, but provokes students’ thoughts and challenges their knowledge and values with Types of Learners 121

questions. This method, well suited for integration with evolving technology such as video streaming and lecture-capturing, is becoming more popular in today’s college classrooms. Included in this category are lecture practice which utilizes props, illustrates the subject, and may include lectures with simulations, computer, or video integration; lecture-discussion, where the instructor speaks for 10 to 15 minutes and then stimulates student discussion around key points (the lecturer acts only as a facilitator to clarify and integrate student comments); punctuated lecture, the presenter asks the students to write down their reflections on lecture points and submit them; and lecture-lab, the lecture is followed by students conducting experiments, interviews, observations, etc., during the class period.

The recent introduction of automated audience response systems within the classroom has enhanced the interactivity, especially in large classes. Similar to a game show, each student has a synchronized response unit, a “clicker,” similar to a TV remote control. This allows the students to reply to the lecturers questions and allows the presenter to immediately verify the connections and involvement of students (Harper, 2009; Mayer et al., 2009).

Keep in mind that a lecture, in and of itself, is neither a good nor a bad/inap-propriate approach to teaching. It may be deemed the best method when dealing with certain groups; however, like any strategy, it is most effective when not used as the singular, exclusive technique. Eble (1982), in The Craft of Teaching, suggested that the lecture should be thought of as a discourse—a talk or conversation—not an authoritative speech. As a discourse, the lecture can be viewed as a planned portion of the art or craft of teaching. As such, lecturing becomes a learnable skill that improves with practice.

As the utilization of the lecture as a “best practice” in teaching has been called into question, numerous research studies have been undertaken. Amare (2006) studied the experiences of students in PowerPoint-enhanced versus non–

PowerPoint-enhanced lectures. She found that, in 84 engineering, humanities, and education majors in a technical writing course, the performance scores were higher in the non-PowerPoint section. However, the students preferred the addition of PowerPoint slides. PowerPoint, pod casts, and other technological enhancements were found to support the lecture by (1) bridging direct and constructionist teaching methods (Clark, 2008; Read, 2005); (2) supporting class attendance (Dolincar, 2005); and (3) reinforcing difficult concepts (Guertin, Bodek, Zappe, & Kim, 2007; Young, 2008). However, Costa, van Rensburg, and Rushton (2007) compared group discussion to the lecture presentation method.

Seventy-seven medical students found the interactive, group discussion style more popular, the retention of knowledge better, and the scores on written tests higher. Generally, however, educational research findings support the notion that the lecture is still a valid, effective teaching strategy that is most effective when 122 Chapter 8 • LeCture: reCLaiming a pLaCe in pedagogy accompanied by other thought-provoking interludes. In the thought-provoking article “Sage on the Stage in the Digital Age,” Chung (2005) presents a number of very salient points but concludes that both graduate and undergraduate online education would suffer if the lecture component were absent.

PREPARING ONESELF TO LECTURE

Never underestimate preparation time, regardless of how well versed you may be with the topic. When presenting an oral essay or formal lecture, preparation must begin well in advance of the presentation date. Planning, organization, and written preparation are essential and time consuming. Less formal forms of lecture may take less time, but their preparation should not be procrastinated. If the lecture is one in a sequence (or within a course), the best time to add the finishing touches to the next lecture is at the completion of the preceding one. Significant ideas that need to be reemphasized are still fresh in the presenter’s mind, as are the questions that were raised, or should have been raised, by the students. The lecturer can recall the presentation strategies that worked with this group of participants, and those that did not. Changes that might have made the lecture more effective can be identified. Most lecturers, however, do not heed this advice and lecture preparation is often relegated to a brief time immediately prior to the presentation.

In order to present an effective lecture, the speaker must invest in preparing for several crucial sections. Like the human body, a lecture is divided into specific parts, each with its own function: the first 5 minutes, the main portion or body of the lecture, and the last 5 minutes. Each “part” is reviewed briefly.

Lecture Introduction (First 5 Minutes)

During the first 5 minutes of the lecture, two significant things occur: (1) the speaker outlines the objectives, outcomes, and expectations held for the participants; and (2) the audience decides whether to trust the speaker to produce what was promised (objectives) and whether to invest energy in following the presentation.

“There is too much material to be covered within the time allocated, but I’ll do the best I can.”

From a teacher’s point of view, this statement is always true but it should never be said to an audience. If a lecturer opens a session with such a statement, the listener has already been conditioned to expect a less than top notch presentation.

Preparing Oneself to Lecture 123

The participant asks himself or herself, “Why should I bother to listen if I can’t possibly learn what I need in this hour?” Once this statement has been made, the lecturer will have difficulty regaining the full attention of the listener. So, no matter how tempting it may be to use, eliminate the statement from your repertoire.

Instead, begin by identifying what the learner should gain from this lecture: state the objectives in clear, interesting, pragmatic, and achievable terms. Then, make a solid connection with the listeners by using an example of how the lecture material can be (or has been) used in practice or life in general. Outline the key concepts that will be addressed, and use your expertise and clinical experience to provide some background and rationale for this lecture. The key points should be limited in number. Research on what is remembered following classes indicated that most students can absorb only three to four major points in a 50-minute lecture and four to five points in a 75-minute presentation (Lowman, 1995). Conclude the introduction by establishing an open atmosphere and describing the

“rules of operation” (e.g., “feel free to ask questions at any time”; “I will be using the automated response system several times during class, have it ready”; “there will be time at the end of the lecture for questions”). An open atmosphere can be established by posing a question, making a bold statement, using a controversial quote, using humor, or using a visual aid or cartoon. The better one knows the audience, the easier and more successful the introduction becomes.

Body of Lecture

The main portion, or body, should begin with a definition of concepts or principles that are illustrated by pragmatic, personal/professional experiences.

The speaker then conveys the critical information the learner needs to know.

The body should be well organized, with smooth transitions between topics. The experienced presenter knows that a lecturer cannot carry the primary responsibility for conveying all information or imparting all skills. Readings or critical analysis assignments assist in accomplishing these goals, and students need to be appraised of this connection. The body of the lecture should contain (1) general themes that tie together related topics; (2) topics/concepts that are difficult for students to understand (e.g., fluid balance); (3) sufficient depth and complexity to retain the learners’ interest; and (4) testimonies (e.g., quotes from cancer survivors), case-specific data (e.g., lab values from unusual patient diagnoses), and exhibits (e.g., charts/graphs of statistics) to support the outcome-related point being made.

The speaker’s presentation style is most evident during the body of the lecture.

Tips and suggestions made in Resources, the following section, will enhance presentation style.

124 Chapter 8 • LeCture: reCLaiming a pLaCe in pedagogy Lecturer Conclusion (Last 5 Minutes)

The lecture needs a definite stopping point. Closing a notebook, running out of time, or simply dismissing the class is not an acceptable conclusion. An effective communicator knows that any interaction deserves closure—a lecture is no exception to that rule. By focusing the learners’ attention during the last 5 minutes of class, the lecturer is able to establish finality and make a link between what was taught and what the learner will be able to use in life, practice, and/or an upcoming test. A good conclusion ties the introduction and the body together in a manner similar to that of an abstract that precedes a well-written manuscript.

The objectives and outcomes statements that were used as a portion of the introduction should be reiterated, assuming they have been accomplished. The conclusion should also contain a review of the key points or topics covered and allow time for elaboration, amplification, and/or clarification of issues presented.

Offering suggestions related to the application and transfer of knowledge may be helpful to the participants and the use of summative “take-home” points may provide additional reinforcement. Using this approach allows the learner to quickly rethink the content, stimulate continued interest, and consider further action. The participants will leave the lecture hall feeling a sense of accomplishment because they can summarize what has been learned. Thus, each lecture should be carefully planned and presented with an introduction (first 5 minutes), a well-organized body, and a meaningful conclusion (last 5 minutes) (Woodring, 2001).

RESOURCES

The major resource needed to utilize the lecture techniques effectively is YOU, the lecturer. Since the introduction of podcasting, MP3 players, immediate lecture-capture techniques, etc., a number of faculty have opted to discontinue technological transmission of the last 5 minutes summarization at the end of the lecture. They reserve this summary and clarification for only those who attend class or are legitimately enrolled in distance transmission of the course (Young, 2008). That option, of course, is as faculty choice. Presenting an informative and interesting lecture is a craft and a learnable skill. Because the speaker is the key element for this strategy, the following points are presented to help polish your presentation skills—and, remember, participants want to believe that you are smart, interesting, and a good speaker (Germano, 2003)!

• Conveying enthusiasm is the key element in presenting an effective

lecture. Enthusiasm is contagious and is demonstrated by facial expressions, excitement in the voice, gestures, and body language. A lack of enthusiasm on the part of the speaker is interpreted by the listener as a lack Resources 125

of self confidence, lack of knowledge, a disinterest in the learner, and/or disinterest in the topic. If you do not have an effusive personality, practice adding a smile and small hand gestures to each lecture. Once these movements are comfortable, add other interactive methods.

• Knowing the content. Even a written, formal lecture will not hide the insecurity of being unprepared or underprepared. Be certain you clearly explain key points in a language understood by the audience.

• Using notes. The use of notes is generally the option of the speaker; however, to avoid the distress of losing your train of thought or incorrectly presenting complex information, the use of some type of notes is highly recommended.

For ease of handling, record the notes on the computer or on pages/cards that are all the same size and sequentially numbered. If you are using PowerPoint slides to accompany the lecture, you may wish to operationalize the notation section and have your lecture notes or outline appear on the screen in front of you, while remaining invisible to the participants. The depth and content of lecture notes should fit the lecturer’s comfort level. Use of anything from a skeletal outline to a full manuscript is acceptable. Notes should be prepared leaving white space that is easy for the eye to follow.

Major points should be highlighted so the eye can easily pick up a cue when scanning a page. Although the use of notes is perfectly acceptable, the verbatim reading of notes is not acceptable. Rehearse your presentation often enough to appear spontaneous and enthusiastic and to complete it within the allotted time frame.

• Speaking to an audience of 200 as if it were a single student. Speak clearly and loudly enough to be heard in the back of the room. The use of a microphone may be necessary if you are presenting in a large room or auditorium. Always use the microphone if there is any doubt that your voice will not be heard in the last row. It is sometimes helpful to have a friend sit in the back and signal if your voice is not being heard during the presentation. A small clip-on microphone is preferable to using a handheld or stationary microphone because it allows the speaker the flexibility to move away from the podium and frees one’s hands to handle notes and/or gesture. If a microphone is to be used, arrive in the assigned room early enough to try the equipment and to regulate microphone position and sound levels. If the lecture is being transmitted to multiple sites, as in distance/distributive education or videoconferencing settings, be certain to test the sound levels at all sites prior to beginning the lecture.

• Making eye contact. Select a participant at each corner of the room with whom you plan to make eye contact. Slowly scan the audience until you have seen each of the designated participants. Smile at familiar faces. If needed, review information related to the process of group dynamics. If the 126 Chapter 8 • LeCture: reCLaiming a pLaCe in pedagogy lecture is being transmitted to multiple sites, be certain to make eye contact via the monitors with participants in the distant sites. You may wish to make a concerted effort to look into each monitor or screen as you visually scan the lecture hall, and address participants at each site.

• Using creative movement. Movements of the speaker’s head and hands in gesturing should appear natural, not forced. Be careful when standing behind a podium; do not grip the sides tightly with your hands or lock your (shaky?) knees. This action produces a circulatory response that could cause the speaker to faint. Occasionally step away from the podium and toward the listeners. This conveys an attitude of warmth and acceptance. Avoid distracting mannerisms such as pacing, wringing your hands, clearing your throat, or jamming your hands into pockets and jingling change.

• Avoiding barriers. The use of a stage or podium places an automatic barrier between the speaker and the listeners. This gulf needs to be bridged early and often during the lecture. Suggestions for bridging the gulf include (1) use note cards rather than a manuscript because they are more portable and allow freedom to move away from the podium; (2) step out from behind the podium, especially if you are short in stature—the audience does not wish to see a “talking head”; (3) walk toward the listeners, which is interpreted as a sign of warmth and reaching out to the audience; (4) address the right half of the audience, the left half of the audience, and then the audience at each distant site (each monitor or screen), do not turn your back to either side of the audience or transmitting cameras; (5) call on at least one participant in the audience and at each distant site by name; (6) use hand gestures to accentuate words, but be careful not to overdo this action (this is especially important if the lecture is being transmitted to multiple sites because large hand gestures are more distracting when seen on a monitor than when viewed in person); and (7) if given the opportunity to be seated on a stage/platform, be aware of the eye level of the audience.

• Creating a change of pace. An astute lecturer constantly assesses the audience and reads participants’ signals. Facial cues indicate agreement/disagreement with what has been said and may express understanding/misunderstanding of content. Another signal is given when listeners begin having side conversations or squirm in their seats. These signals call for intervention, response, or a change of pace by the speaker. The change of pace can be as simple as turning off the computer/projector, shifting to a new slide, adding sound or animation to your visual, or changing the lighting—any of these actions will cause the listener to refocus attention on the speaker or back to the visual.

Shifting the focus from the speaker to a handout, using a humorous example, altering the tone or inflection of your voice, using automated interaction with feedback from participants, dividing into small groups for a brief discussion Potential Problems 127

(Yazedjian & Kolkhorst, 2007), or taking a “stand and stretch” break also can provide a needed change of pace. Keep this rule of thumb in mind: an individual’s optimal attention span is roughly 1 minute per year of age up to the approximate age of 45 (e.g., a 5-year-old has a 5-minute attention span; a 25-year-old, 25 minutes), and decreases among the younger, digitally minded. Therefore, plan a change of pace or break according to the average age of your audience. “The mind can only absorb as much as the seat can endure” is a fairly valid, reasonable guideline.

• Distributing a skeletal outline to help the learners identify key points. Emphasize principles and concepts. Do not copy charts, graphs, and materials that are found in the learners’ texts. Handout information should supplement the lecture. The lecture should not be a rehash of basic information from the learners’ textbook. If handouts are used, they should be clear and contain a limited amount of information so the learner is not overwhelmed.

Handouts printed on colored paper stand out and are more likely to be read than those printed on white paper. The reproduction or Web posting of the PowerPoint slides or lecture notes is a well debated topic. Germano (2003) declares technology to be a tool, but notes that tools are not friends and are often rivals. Stewart (2006) suggests the distribution of full-text class notes or slides that contain a significant proportion of the lecture content truly discourages class attendance.

Several publications that may be of assistance in keeping the lecture process fresh are The Teaching Professor, Change, Masie’s Learning TRENDS, The National Teaching & Learning Forum, and Survival Skills for Scholars series. In addition, Web sites maintained by a number of universities offer assistance: Georgia State University, Master Teacher Program (http://www.masterteacherprogram.com/

about/index.html), University of Chicago (http//teaching.uchicago.edu/handbook/

tac06.html), University of Toledo (http://education.utoledo.edu/par/Adults.html), and Towson University (http://wwwnew.towson.edu/facultyonline/ISD/lectures.

htm). Numerous online journals and listserves also can provide rapid access to information related to specific topics of interest.

POTENTIAL PROBLEMS

Nothing is perfect. As with any method or technique, some problems exist with the use of the lecture as a teaching strategy. A key question to be answered is “What makes lectures and lecturers unsuccessful?” Over the past decade, graduate nursing students have responded to that question, and each year student responses were consistent. The most frequently cited negative characteristics of lectures/lecturers focused on the person doing the presenting, not the method 128 Chapter 8 • LeCture: reCLaiming a pLaCe in pedagogy (Woodring & Woodring, 2007). Examples of common negative factors associated with lectures and some suggestions for improvement are found in Table 8-4. The remainder of this section is devoted to dealing with negative perceptions, which are more generic than the characteristics in Table 8-4.

Student Boredom

Educators today face challenges that our predecessors did not even dream about! How can one obtain and retain the attention of the high-speed Internet, digital native, and MP3 player generation? This generation of learners is accustomed to fast-paced, action-packed, colorized entertainment at the flick of a finger. To compensate for this situational dilemma and still utilize the lecture technique effectively, the teacher should experiment with combining advanced technologies and the lecture within the classroom. Consider in-class use of a textbook on CD/DVD with capabilities of adding supplementary information during the lecture; the use of computer-linked electronic whiteboards to transfer information from e-boards to individual students laptop monitors; the appropriate and creative integration of PowerPoint-type visuals during the lecture; or integration of text/reference materials via a personal digital assistant (PDA) format. These electronic capabilities allow the lecturer to interject computer generated charts, graphs, diagrams, student input, and up-to-the-minute research findings into the lecture. Luck and Laurence (2005) validated that the use of videoconferencing technology used to present a lecture series for beginning college students. The lecture/videoconference was evaluated by the learners as encouraging “positive active participation” and allowing “prompt feedback.”

Additionally, assignment of out-of-class computer-assisted instructional programs (such as ADAM/EVE, simulations, or patient-/disease-specific learning packages), communication packages (e.g., WebCrossings), and/or electronic/

Internet-based assignments to complement the lecture will assist in gaining and maintaining the interest of more technologically savvy students.

Including many examples of electronic technologies would be a moot point.

By the time this book is printed, newer modalities will have emerged. It might be wise to ask a 10-year-old what is “hot” (or “cool” or “rad” or whatever).

Institutional Barriers

Physical, political, and situational barriers exist within every institution—any or all of which may contribute to dissatisfaction with any instructional approach.

The timing of a class offering cannot be overlooked. Traditionally, teachers have Potential Problems 129

Table 8-4 Perceived Negative Factors Associated with the Lecture Technique Perceived Negative Factors

Suggestions for Improvement

Presentation disorganized or hard to

Spend time in practice and preparation

Prepare and follow brief outline for each

Lack of outline or outline too detailed

lecture

Presenter lacks professional appearance

Dress as a professional role model. (If

you do not care about wearing stripes

and plaids together, enlist the help of

a colleague who you consider to look

professional.)

Speaker lacks facial expression

Record one of your lectures; view record-

Monotone voice or nervous/shaky voice

ing with a friend/ colleague and estab-

Facial expression and/or voice lacks

lish goals for improvement.

enthusiasm

Reads lecture material, eyes do not

Practice your lecture in front of a mirror until

meet those of listeners

you know the main points by memory.

Use only as many written notes as are

absolutely essential; place cues in the

margin for yourself. (smile-walk-relax!)

Remains behind podium to lecture

Do not stand behind a podium unless you

(referred to as the “talking head”

are 6 feet tall; request a shorter, lower

because that is all that students see)

lectern or table.

Uses no visual aids or visuals of poor

Teachers tend to put too much information

quality

in small print on slides and/or handouts.

Ask librarian, media center, or learning

center personnel for assistance in

preparing visuals.

Too many PowerPoint slides

Use visuals to support, not replace content.

Does not acknowledge that adult learn-

Review techniques for keeping adult

ers like to participate

learners engaged.

See references by Cross, Kidd, and Knowles

Inconsiderate of learners’ needs

Schedule breaks and/or implement change-

of-pace activities every 30–45 minutes.

(continued)

130 Chapter 8 • LeCture: reCLaiming a pLaCe in pedagogy Table 8-4 Perceived Negative Factors Associated With the Lecture Technique (continued) Perceived Negative Factors

Suggestions for Improvement

Distracting habits of presenter: pacing,

Use a video of your lecture to identify

staring out windows, playing with

repetitive habits

objects (paper clips, rubber bands,

Repositioning hands or holding notes

change), using non-words (ah, um)

may help the “nervous hands” problem

and repetitious phrases (“you know”,

Make a list of alternate words that could

“like”, “well uh”)

be substituted for the frequently re-

peated pet phrases

Non-words are a verbalization that al-

lows your speech to catch up to what

your brain is thinking; becoming aware

of the use of non-words may or may

not be all you need to eliminate them;

when they occur, stop, take a deep

breath, and then go on

disliked teaching, and students have disliked attending classes offered, at 7 am or 9 pm. No one likes getting up that early or staying in class that late! Classes taught immediately after meal time are considered “sleepers” because blood leaves the brain and moves to the gastrointestinal tract, making everyone sluggish.

Classes taught late in the afternoon or early evening are bad because the students and teachers are tired. Try as one may, short of one-on-one teaching, or totally online/asynchronous education, the perfect time to hold a class will probably never be found. Speakers must make their presentations stimulating and motivating at any time of the day!

Another institutional barrier to be considered is the number of students proportional to the size of the classroom and the number of students in proportion to the number of faculty (student:faculty ratio). Lecturers are often placed in small, crowded classrooms with large numbers of students or large, cavernous classrooms with smaller numbers of students. Often, geographical relocation of desks/tables could ease the space configuration and provide a more positive learning atmosphere. Should the lecturer have the option, it is most ideal to be able to clearly see and make eye contact with each participant. This may be accomplished by arranging seating in a semicircle around the lectern or angling tables/seats. But if seating is fixed within the classroom, Potential Problems 131

then it becomes the responsibility of the speaker to move and make eye contact as often as possible.

The large student:faculty ratio within classes will probably not decrease in postsecondary education in the near future. Large classes, especially at the fresh-man and sophomore levels, are very cost effective. The bottom line will continue to impose restrictions that are exacerbated by the increase in distance and multisite class sessions and faculty shortage in many health-related professions. This disproportionate student:faculty ratio will require lecturers to implement the tips list under the previous Resources section, as well as utilize technological support, teaching assistants for smaller group interactions, and other creative strategies to enhance student learning for material presented in large lecture sections. The results of a study of undergraduate students (Long & Coldren, 2006) reinforced the need for the lecturer to make interpersonal connection with students in large classes. There was a positive correlation between the students’ perception of interpersonal connection with the faculty and student success in the class.

Negative Press

The faculty member who consistently lectures may be subjected to student-generated negative comments, such as “This class is so boring, all he does is lecture”; “It’s awful, she reads to us right out of her book”; or “I can’t learn to think critically if all she does is lecture!” In fairness, it is generally not the method but the teacher who is at fault if such comments are disseminated. It is often said that lecturing is a poor teaching method, a kind of last resort for instruction. Many lecturers, in fact, do not know how to impart information or stimulate interest effectively; consequently, their lectures are often poorly presented, badly organized, dull, and uninspiring (Gleitman, 2006). In order to correct negative press, plan ahead, organize the content and introduce at least one additional teaching method (e.g., discussion, video, audience response system, small group interaction, role play) into each lecture session. This approach will increase student interaction and should increase student satisfaction. In addition, tell the students how you are attempting to improve the lecture setting and you will gain their respect because you have acknowledged their feelings and made an overt effort to respond to them.

Knowledge Retention

The problem of retaining information gained from a lecture should be acknowledged and addressed. Although those educators who enjoy using the 132 Chapter 8 • LeCture: reCLaiming a pLaCe in pedagogy lecture method hate to admit it, research conducted in the 1990s found that 80% of information gained by lecture alone cannot be recalled by students 1

day later, and that 80% of the remainder fades in a month. Since minimal research has been done to alter that perception, one must still heed the results.

Educational data indicates the more a learner’s senses (taste, touch, smell, sight, and hearing) are involved in the learning activity, the longer the knowledge is retained. Therefore, if certain types of equipment were used to illustrate a point (touch, sight), a video clip was inserted into the midst of the lecture (sight, hearing), or any other active learning process (gaming, lab experiments, audience response activities) was introduced, the student’s knowledge retention would increase.

In recent years, the use of punctuated lectures has also been viewed as a method to increase retention of information. The punctuated lecture requires students and teachers to go through five steps: (1) listen (to a portion of a lecture), (2) stop, (3) reflect (on what they were doing, thinking, feeling during that portion of the lecture), (4) write (what they were doing, thinking, feeling during that portion of the lecture), and (5) give (the written feedback to the lecturer) (Cross & Steadman, 1996). This approach provides the lecturer and the students with an opportunity to become engaged with the learning process, as well as to self-monitor their in-class behaviors. In addition, Brookfield (2006) suggests that students cannot read the lecturer’s mind. Students cannot be expected to know what teachers expect, stand for, or wish them to value unless it is explicitly and vigorously communicated to them. The reflective teacher, according to Brookfield, must continual work to build a case for learning, action, and practice rather than assume these values to be self-evident to the learner.

Implementing these suggestions should enhance knowledge retention emanating from a lecture.

EVALUATION

An evaluation of the lecture/lecturer must be completed in a timely manner.

The most useful time to obtain this data is at the completion of an individual lecture. Obtaining this information need not be laborious. Ask the listeners to respond to a few specific questions and then allow them to provide additional comments. This type of feedback is especially helpful for the novice lecturer. The evaluation process should aim to provide constructive criticism and comments for improvement. One means of accomplishing this is to allow the student to make any comments they wish; however, a negative comment cannot be made without offering a suggestion for its resolution. When this evaluation technique is used References 133

routinely, the learners become accustomed to it. The process can be completed in 5 minutes or less, especially if automated response systems are used. Often, teachers are so interested in assessing whether the course objectives have been met that they forget to evaluate the means by which they were met. Lecturers will not improve without suggested change, and suggested change can best be obtained via the use of a planned evaluation tool/method that is completed by peers and/or class participants. The evaluation of a lecture or lecturer should not occur in isolation—it must be viewed as a portion of an overall evaluation plan—and should be conducted only when there are plans for growth, follow-up, and change.

CONCLUSION

Presenting an effective lecture continues to be more than standing in front of a group and verbalizing information. The lecturer must be knowledgeable, well-spoken, and considerate of the learners’ needs, abilities, learning styles, and cognitive/developmental level(s). The desired outcomes for the class and the individual objectives of the learners must be addressed. The lecture should be divided into three major segments: introduction (5 minutes), body, and conclusion (5 minutes). Each section should be planned and presented in an organized manner, never off the cuff. The prepared lecturer will be considerate, credible, and in control (not to be mistaken for rigid and controlling). Several factors enhance the presentation of a lecture, but none is more important than genuine enthusiasm. The lecture should not be considered a secondary teaching strategy.

In many situations, it is the most appropriate methodology to be used. To elicit the best results, the lecture should be accompanied by at least one of the other effective strategies discussed in this text.

As we close this chapter on presenting a lecture, it is suggested that attention should be paid to the words of the wise elder: Select your words carefully, be sure your words are sweet, because you never know when you will be called upon them to eat! Happy lecturing.

REFERENCES

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Chung, Q. B. (2005). Sage on stage in the digital age: The role of online lecture in distance learning.

The Electronic Journal of e-Learning, 3(1), 1–14.

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Costa, M., van Rensburg, L., & Rushton, N. (2007). Does teaching style matter? A randomized trial of group discussion versus lectures in orthopaedic undergraduate teaching. Medical Education, 41, 214–217.

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Eble, K. (1982). The craft of teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Epstein, J. (1981). Portraits of great teachers (p. xiii). New York: Basic Books.

Germano, W. (2003). The scholarly lecture: How to stand and deliver. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 50(14), 14b.

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INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 8

INTRODUCTION

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